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What is FDM 3D Printing?

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is the most widely used form of 3D printing in households around the world. This process involves extruding melted thermoplastic material layer by layer, allowing each layer to cool and solidify before the next one is added.

FDM is an additive manufacturing method, opposite to subtractive processes like CNC milling. Instead of cutting away from a solid block, FDM uses only the material needed for the part itself, with the exception of support structures used for overhangs. These supports are removed and discarded after printing.

The uniqueness of FDM printing primarily lies in three key areas: the material used, the slicing software that converts 3D models into G-code instructions, and the extrusion system. Other components like motors and control boards are not exclusive to FDM and are common across many digital fabrication methods.

This Wiki is built with a very advanced where you can ask anything you want to know about. Just click the "Ask" icon at the top of this page, or hit "CTRL + I" on your keyboard.

This includes asking:

What material is right for my project?

Just explain your application needs and ask the AI bot what material it suggests.

What Is a Slicer in FDM 3D Printing?

A slicer is specialized software that converts 3D models into printable instructions (G-code) for FDM printers. It "slices" digital designs into horizontal layers, calculates toolpaths, and defines parameters like print speed, temperature, and material flow. Slicers enable precise control over print quality, material efficiency, and structural integrity.

How Slicers Work

1. Model Import: Accepts 3D files (STL, OBJ, STEP, etc.) to define geometry.

2. Layer Segmentation: Divides the model into layers based on user-defined layer heights (e.g., 0.1mm–0.3mm).

3. Toolpath Generation: Maps extruder movements, including infill patterns, supports, and adhesion aids.

4. Parameter Configuration: Adjusts nozzle temperature, retraction, cooling, and material-specific settings.

Key features include infill density optimization, support structure generation, and print speed adjustments for balancing quality and efficiency.

Cardboard spools have several advantages over plastic spools that make them an appealing choice for many in the 3D printing community, despite some ongoing debate. One key benefit is their durability in terms of impact resistance—they do not shatter or crack when dropped, unlike plastic spools which can break. This toughness makes cardboard spools more resilient during handling and transportation. Additionally, cardboard spools can typically withstand higher temperatures before deforming, which is especially useful when drying filament spools prior to printing. Plastic spools may warp under such heat, whereas cardboard maintains its form better, allowing safer and potentially more effective moisture removal.

Another important advantage of cardboard spools is their environmental friendliness. Many cardboard spools, such as those produced by Polymaker, are made from recycled materials and are fully recyclable themselves. This contributes to reducing plastic waste and the overall carbon footprint associated with 3D printer filament packaging. They are lighter as well, which lowers shipping emissions. Cardboard spools represent a more sustainable option, aligning with the growing awareness of environmental impacts in 3D printing. Polymaker’s use of recycled cardboard further enhances this benefit, providing users with an eco-conscious choice without sacrificing functional durability.

To effectively dry your filament and achieve optimal results, having good airflow is far more important than simply increasing the temperature. This is because drying filament is primarily about removing the moisture trapped inside the material, and airflow plays a critical role in carrying away that moisture once it evaporates. As the saying goes, "you don't dry your hair by putting it in the oven," highlighting that excessive heat alone is not the answer and can even damage the filament if temperatures are too high.

By ensuring consistent and strong airflow, you can accelerate the drying process at a lower temperature, which is gentler on the material and helps maintain its quality. Good airflow allows moisture to escape efficiently, preventing it from lingering around the filament and causing issues like brittleness or poor print results. Overall, drying filament with proper airflow means you can dry it more quickly and safely, minimizing the risk of overheating while effectively preparing your filament for smooth, reliable 3D printing.

Effect of Print Thickness on Heat Resistance

When 3D printing, layer height and part thickness can influence more than just strength and weight. The thickness of a print plays an important role in how well it holds its shape under heat, whether during service use or during post-processing such as annealing. Heat deflection temperature (HDT) is often discussed when comparing materials, but the print’s geometry and density also have a large effect on real-world performance.

General Importing Tips:

• Download the slicer profile you want to use, making sure it’s compatible with your slicer and printer model. The file is often in formats like .ini, .json, .3mf, .zip, or a specific profile extension.

• Open your slicer software and find the menu option for importing profiles—this is usually under “File” or “Settings,” then “Import” or “Profiles.”

Importing a profile onto a slicer will be different depending on the slicer you are using. For the example below we will use Bambu Studio.

After downloading your profile from our list, you will open up Bambu Studio. You then click on "File" on the top left:

You then scroll over "import" and click "Import Configs"

You will then either choose the Zip file or the .bbsflmt file you just downloaded. If the profile you downloaded is a Zip file - you would choose the zipped compressed folder without uncompressing.

Your profile will now be listed under "User Presets" "Custom"

In 3D printing, the term "jerk" has a different practical meaning compared to its classical definition in engineering and physics. Traditionally, jerk is defined as the rate of change of acceleration—a third derivative of position with respect to time, measured in units like mm/s³. It describes how quickly acceleration itself changes, which is a highly dynamic, instantaneous measure important in motion control and mechanical systems.

However, in 3D printing firmware and motion control, "jerk" is commonly used as a simplified setting representing the instantaneous allowable speed change of the printer's print head when changing direction, measured in mm/s (velocity units, not acceleration units). It effectively sets a threshold speed—the maximum speed at which the printer can change direction without needing to decelerate to a full stop first. For example, if the jerk is set to 20 mm/s, the printer can instantly reverse or turn at that speed without slowing down completely, enabling smoother and faster cornering movements. This usage is more about limiting abrupt speed changes in the axes at junctions or corners rather than describing physical jerk as acceleration changes. Thus, in 3D printing, jerk controls how quickly the print head can pivot direction, affecting print speed, quality, and mechanical vibrations, rather than representing true "jerk" from physics.

Many people don’t usually consider PLA to be weather resistant because it is well-known for having a relatively low heat resistance compared to other engineering plastics. However, PLA can actually exhibit surprisingly good resistance to UV exposure and various weather conditions when it is formulated and processed correctly. While traditional PLA may degrade more quickly under prolonged sunlight or outdoor exposure, specially engineered PLA variants can hold up much better in these environments than commonly assumed.

For example, Polymaker’s Matte PLA for Production has been subjected to rigorous weather resistance testing, which demonstrated that it performs on par with ASA, a material widely recognized for its excellent UV and weather durability. This means that, despite the typical perception of PLA as a material better suited for indoor or low-stress applications, certain advanced PLA formulations like Polymaker’s Matte PLA can be confidently used for outdoor projects or parts exposed to sunlight without rapid degradation. This opens new possibilities for using PLA in functional applications where both aesthetic finish and environmental resistance are important.

The first layer of a 3D print is arguably the most critical, as it sets the foundation for the entire part. If the first layer does not adhere properly to the build plate or is unevenly extruded, the print can fail as subsequent layers rely on a stable and consistent base. Too large a gap between the nozzle and the bed can lead to poor adhesion, resulting in warping or layer shifting, while a nozzle too close to the build plate risks scraping or damaging the surface, potentially ruining both the plate and the print. A well-laid first layer ensures proper bonding and dimensional stability, significantly increasing the chances of a successful print.

Modern 3D printers have made significant advancements with features like automatic bed leveling and initial Z-height calibration, which greatly reduce the chances of first layer issues and save users from manual tweaking. These automated systems help ensure the nozzle height and bed level are optimized before printing starts. However, despite these improvements, it is still highly recommended to monitor the first layer closely, especially when trying a new material, changing build plates, or printing after maintenance. Confirming the first layer prints correctly before leaving the printer unattended remains best practice to prevent print failures and protect your hardware.

Many people in the 3D printing community often consider standard PLA to be a weak or fragile material. However, this perception doesn’t tell the full story. In reality, standard PLA exhibits impressive strength in several important mechanical aspects. It is known for being very rigid and having good tensile strength, allowing it to withstand substantial loads and maintain its shape under pressure. This makes PLA well-suited for many applications where stiffness and dimensional stability are critical.

The misconception about PLA’s weakness largely stems from its relatively low impact resistance. While PLA can handle steady forces and tension well, it is more prone to cracking or breaking when subjected to sudden impacts or drops. This means that although a PLA print might not bend or deform easily under normal use, it can be brittle when faced with sharp shocks or accidental falls. Therefore, impact resistance is just one way to measure material strength, and PLA’s excellent rigidity and tensile capabilities mean it can be quite strong when used in the right contexts and for parts designed to avoid impact stresses.

• Launch Cura on your computer.

• In the top menu, click Preferences, then select Configure Cura. This opens the main configuration panel where you can manage profiles and materials.

• On the left side of the configuration panel, click Profiles to see your current list of available print profiles.

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) and Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) describe the same 3D printing process, which involves extruding thermoplastic filament layer by layer to build a part. The method has become one of the most widely used additive manufacturing techniques because of its relatively low cost, material availability, and accessibility to both hobbyists and professionals. Despite the different names, the underlying process is identical in both cases.

The distinction between the terms comes from intellectual property rather than technology. Fused Deposition Modeling was coined and trademarked by Stratasys, one of the pioneering companies in the 3D printing industry. Because the name is protected, the broader community, particularly in the open-source sector, adopted the term Fused Filament Fabrication to describe the same process without infringing on trademark rights.

Today, both FDM and FFF are used interchangeably to describe extrusion-based 3D printing. In commercial and industrial contexts, FDM may be more common, especially when referring to Stratasys machines, while FFF is often seen in reference to open-source or consumer-grade printers. Regardless of terminology, the technology refers to the same foundational process in additive manufacturing.

3MF: A newer file format designed specifically for 3D printing. It is basically G-code along with other relevant slicing information so that you can open a 3MF file into a slicer.

Aluminum Extrusion Rails: These have your carriages move along aluminum extrusion bars via rollers (as compared to Linear Rails or Linear Rods). Think of the original Ender 3 as an example.

Barrel: A heatsink attached to your hotend which is meant to keep a temperature differential from said hotend. The barrel is cooled by a fan and will make sure your filament is only being heated in the hotend and not creeping upward.

Bowden Extruder: An indirect extruder – where the extruder is not directly attached to the hotend and must feed filament over a distance to reach the hotend.

Brim: Lines of print that are touching the perimeter of your print on the build plate. This helps to anchor your part if you think it may warp or get knocked off.

Cartesian: A printer where each axis is controlled and moved independently by a motor. The X-axis operates autonomously from the Y-axis. The Bambu Lab A1 is an example of a cartesian machine.

Cooling Fan(s): The fans used to cool the printed layers quickly to improve print quality. These fans help surface and overhang quality but can increase your chances of warping and delamination on some higher temperature resistant materials.

CoreXY: A printer that synchronizes the X and Y axes movement via stepper motors. When the hotend moves in the X-direction, both motors rotate, and the same applies to the Y-direction. Bambu Lab P1 and X1 printers are examples of CoreXY machines.

Direct Extruder: This is an extruder that feeds directly into the hotend without any added distance.

Endstop: The part that is triggered when you reach the furthest point of your build volume in any direction. This trigger tells the printer it cannot move any further and is used to “home” your machine.

Extruder: The part of the printer that pushes or feeds filament. It is motorized.

Filament: Strands of material – it can be thought of as another term for the material being used in your 3D printer.

Firmware: The software that is embedded into your printer to tell it how to operate. This can either be open-source (Marlin/Klipper) or closed-source.

G-code: The file format used to tell your printer how to move, how fast to move, and how much material to extrude. Slicers turn 3D models into G-code, but you cannot open G-code in a slicer and edit any settings – that would require a 3MF file format.

Gantry Style Printers: This is a term that is may not be being used correctly, but it is how we refer to any machine that moves the build plate up and down in the Z-direction. Can include CoreXY machines like the Bambu Lab X1C, or a Cartesian one like the Ender 5.

Hotend: The part of your printer that melts the filament. It is powered by a heater and uses a thermistor to tell the temperature.

Hygroscopic: How likely your material is to absorb and be affected by moisture. The more hygroscopic the material, the more susceptible it is – meaning the more likely it will need frequent drying.

Jerk: The instantaneous velocity your printer will start at after a directional change or after reaching a full stop. In engineering this refers to something else, but in 3D printing this is what the word means.

Infill: The internal structure of a printed object, typically designed to add strength while reducing material usage and print time.

Layer Height: The thickness of each individual layer of your print. Lower layer heights normally means greater Z-axis detail - but will also result in a print that takes longer to complete.

Leadscrew: A threaded metal part that turns to move an axis by being attached to a stepper motor. These are normally used for the Z axis on printers rather than a belt.

Linear Rails: These use a stiff, steel rail along which the carriages slide via bearings (as compared to Aluminum Extrusion or Linear Rods).

Linear Rods: These have the carriages attached to a smooth rod via bearings (as compared to Aluminum Extrusion or Linear Rails).

Nozzle: A die that is attached to your hotend that will set the diameter thickness of the individual lines for material you are extruding. Common nozzle diameters are between 0.15mm and 1.2mm – though they can come in nearly any size. The larger the diameter – the better the hotend you will require to print fast to heat the material to the proper viscosity. Generally speaking smaller diameter nozzles can result in more X/Y detail, while larger nozzles can usually result in better layer adhesion.

Raft: An initial few layers of material that will be removed after printing, to help the main part of your print stick properly. These are rarely used but can help in certain situations.

Slicer: The software used to convert a 3D model into G-code or a 3MF file.

Skirt: A small amount of purge material that lays around the perimeter of your print on the build plate, but does not touch the print itself. This is solely to make sure your material is printing properly before starting a print but does not add any extra build plate adhesion.

Stepper Motor: Motors used to move your different axes as well as your extruder.

Supports: Temporary structures generated by the slicer software to support overhanging features of a printed object during printing. These can be thought of as scaffolding for your print.

Thermistor: A thermostat which will tell the temperature of your hotend (or possibly your build plate). It will tell your printer if you are below your set temperature or if you have reached it. A malfunctioning thermistor without proper safety software built in can be very dangerous.

Travel: This refers to when your printer is moving between parts of your print and is not actively extruding/printing.

Volumetric Speed: The maximum volume of material that the printer can extrude per unit of time, considering nozzle diameter and layer height.

• Make sure you have downloaded your profile files, which are usually in .ini, .gcode, or .3mf format. Extract the files if they come in a zip.

• Launch PrusaSlicer and look for the top menu bar.

• Click File, then select Import.

• If you are loading a single profile, choose Import Config. To bring in multiple profiles at once, use Import Config Bundle.

• For project files saved from PrusaSlicer (.3mf or .amf), select Import Config from Project.

• Browse to the location where your profile file is saved and select it. The profile may contain Print, Filament, and Printer settings.

• PrusaSlicer will import and add the new settings as custom profiles under the relevant section: Printer, Filament, or Print Settings.

• You should now see the imported custom profile in your lists. Select the new preset as needed for your print job.

• Always double-check that the settings match your machine and material to avoid accidental misconfiguration.

• If you download a profile with a .txt extension, rename it to .ini before importing.

• After importing, review the settings and, if needed, fine-tune for your particular application or printer.

This procedure supports importing profiles for a wide range of printers and materials, and keeps your settings organized for easy use and future reference.

Below is a full list of FAQ when working with Polymaker and 3D printing in general. Each of these topics is covered further in this Wiki, but this can make for a great starting point for your frequently asked questions.

Getting Started with 3D Printing

Help with 3D Printing

Maintaining a 3D printer involves regularly scheduled tasks and readily available supplies to prevent issues and ensure optimal performance. Certain tools are used frequently, while others are reserved for occasional maintenance.

Essential Accessories

Specific tools enhance 3D printing and printer maintenance.

• Pliers: Indispensable for removing support material from prints, pliers also assist in holding components during tasks like nozzle replacements.

• Razor Blade: Useful for cleaning up prints, especially for removing brims and tidying rough edges or stringing. Exercise caution when using.

• Model Cutters: Thin, sharp scissors are essential for delicate prints, especially when removing support material from fragile sections.

• Scraper: A sturdy metal scraper with a tapered front improves usability and durability for removing prints from the build plate.

• Metric Allen Screwdriver Set: Essential for accessing and maintaining various components of the printer. Common sizes include M2.5, M3, M4, and M5. A color-coded set can help easily identify each size.

• Solder Set or Solder Seal Wire Connectors: Soldering equipment is essential for repairing frayed wires and making electrical connections. Solder seal wire connectors provide a secure solder-free alternative. While potentially unnecessary for closed-source printers, soldering equipment is useful to have on hand.

• Tweezers: Fine-tipped tweezers are useful for removing excess material or debris from prints, particularly during the printing process.

• Zip Ties: Helpful for securing cables and organizing wires within the printer.

• Calipers: Accurate measurement tools are essential for precise modeling, filament measurement, and determining E-steps.

• Multimeter: Invaluable for diagnosing electrical issues, particularly for checking continuity and voltage.

• Loctite Super Glue Gel or 3D Gloop: Fast-drying adhesives ideal for minor repairs on PLA prints, providing a strong and durable bond.

• White Lithium Grease: Regularly lubricating threaded and smooth rods helps ensure smooth and consistent operation.

• Wire and Nylon Brushes: Nylon brushes clean dirty nozzles and heater blocks, while brass brushes address more stubborn residue, used sparingly due to potential abrasion.

Replacement Parts

Having certain inexpensive components on hand can minimize downtime.

• Thermistors: These components function as thermometers for the hotend, ensuring proper temperatures. Keeping spares handy addresses temperature-related errors.

• Heater: While heaters don't require frequent replacement, having a spare is useful in troubleshooting hotend heating issues.

• Nozzles: Stocking up on replacement brass or hardened steel nozzles addresses print quality issues caused by wear. It is useful to have a set of hotend/nozzle combinations for closed-source machines for easy swaps.

Investing in these spare parts can minimize downtime and address issues during 3D printing.

The image below is a printer in a Cartesian setup, where the build plate moves back and forth in the Y direction and the hotend left and right in the X direction – similar to the popular Bambu Lab A1, Creality Ender 3, and Prusa MK4 printers.

1. Z Carriage: This connects to both the Z rod and threaded rod/leadscrew. The leadscrew then turns due to the stepper motor it is attached to, which then moves the x carriage up and down. On Bowden machines this is often where the extruder is attached.

2. X Endstop: This is what tells the hotend to stop when homing. There is also a Y and Z endstop not shown in this picture which have the same function (though a Z endstop may be replaced by an auto bed leveler).

3. Build plate: This can be either glass, PEI, or another form of build plate. This is where the prints stick to.

4. Nozzle: Filament is fed through a heated nozzle in order to form your print. These can be found with different diameter holes, with the smaller the hole, the finer the detail. Nozzles range from 0.15mm – 1.2mm in diameter (sometimes thicker with hotends such as the SuperVolcano). They also come in brass, hardened steel, and ruby tip, with each becoming more abrasive resistant and more expensive.

5. X Carriage: This is where the hotend (and printers with direct extruders) attach to. The X carriage is attached to the X rods and belt which then in turn move the hotend in the X direction. This carriage should be very secured and not have any rattling.

6. Extruder: This is how the filament is fed into the nozzle. In this example we are showing a non-geared direct extruder. A geared extruder will have a gear-ratio allowing for less stress to be placed on the stepper motor, adding a mechanical advantage for more torque, allowing the filament to be fed faster. The extruder includes a tooth drive attached to the stepper motor that pinches the filament against a bearing that freely spins. There are dual drive extruders as well which replace this bearing with another tooth drive. This extruder can also be placed on the Z carriage in a Bowden fashion.

7. Extruder Stepper Motor: The extruder stepper is what turns and feeds filament through the extruder. This would be placed on the Z carriage when on a Bowden setup. This is what you are controlling when you set the E-Steps. When using a geared-extruder, you put less strain on this stepper motor by giving it a mechanical advantage, which would result in less extruder motor skips and a higher E-Step value. It would be smart to place a heat sink on this in order to disperse heat if you built your printer. This added weight when setup in a direct fashion can be one reason someone would prefer Bowden.

8. X Carriage Belt: This is what is connected to the X carriage as to move it left and right in the X direction via a stepper motor. This belt should be tight/springy to the touch as to reduce Z-wobble.

9. Y Stepper Motor: This stepper motor moves the bed back and forth in the Y direction by controlling the Y carriage belt. This is only present in this fashion on Cartesian machines. Remember on CoreXY setups, there is no “Y stepper Motor” as each motor moves both the X and Y axis dependent on one another.

10. Y Carriage Belt: This is the belt that is connected to the build plate and is controlled by the Y stepper motor and spins freely attached to a bearing on the other side. Just as with the X carriage belt, this should be tight and springy to the touch.

11. Y Smooth Rods: These rods are what the Y carriage are attached to via bearings and are smooth to the touch. They help to make sure the build plate moves smoothly back and forth without rattling. These rods should be lubricated with white lithium grease so that the build plate can move without resistance. These can be replaced with a rail system or aluminum extrusion with rollers instead on particular machines.

12. Active Cooling Fan: This fan is used to cool prints as layers are being laid down. This is crucial to use to get clean prints with particular materials, including PLA. This can lead to decreased layer adhesion on other particular materials, so you need to confirm the material you are using before turning it on in your slicer settings.

13. Z Stepper Motor: On some machines there is only one Z stepper motor, but there are dual steppers in this example. This stepper motor turns the Z leadscrew (or thin threaded rod) and moves the X and Z Carriage up and down, via where it is connected to the Z carriage (1 in photo). This is different on CoreXY machines, since those move the build plate up and down instead of the hotend.

14. Heaterblock of Hotend: This is the part of the hotend that gets hot and is attached to the heater. This is attached to the nozzle below it, and the barrel above it (with a heatbreak in between). The barrel should always have a fan blowing on it to prevent heat creep, though one is not shown in this picture.

15. X Smooth Rods: These rods are what the X carriage via bearings and are smooth to the touch. They help to make sure the hotend move smoothly left and right without rattling. These rods should be lubricated with white lithium grease so that the carriage can move without resistance. These can be replaced with a rail system or aluminum extrusion with rollers on particular machines.

16. Z Smooth Rods: There may only be one of these on your machine, but in the photo above, there are two Z smooth rods. These are what your Z carriage is attached via bearings to in order to ensure the Z carriages are moved up and down smoothly without rattling. They should remain lubricated just like the X and Y smooth rods as to ensure there is as little friction with the bearings as possible. These can also be replaced with a rail system or aluminum extrusion with rollers on particular machines.

17. Z Leadscrew (or threaded rod): These are threaded rods ranging from 5mm-10mm in diameter, with 8mm seeming to be the most common. Many machines only have one of these, but I have found when there are dual leadscrews you get more consistent results. These are turned via the Z stepper motors which then thread into the Z carriages – moving the Z and X carriages up and down. These have essentially the same function for the Z carriages as the belts have for the X and Y carriage. They are threaded rods though because more weight is placed on these parts, and less frequent moving is required out of the Z direction. In general, the thicker these leadscrews are, the better. Thin 5mm threaded rods can become bent and do not last long on 3D printers.

When orienting prints on the build plate, it’s common practice to prioritize factors like achieving the best overhang quality and minimizing the amount of support material needed. While these considerations are important for print quality and efficiency, they are not the only elements to keep in mind when deciding on the print orientation. One crucial factor that is often overlooked is the mechanical strength of the printed part, which is inherently influenced by the layer-by-layer nature of 3D printing.

Because 3D prints are created by stacking layers of material, parts typically exhibit their weakest mechanical strength along the Z axis—perpendicular to the layers—making them more prone to breaking or delaminating along those layer lines. As a result, if you're printing a part that must withstand mechanical stress or structural loads, it’s essential to carefully consider the orientation not only during printing but also during the design phase. By aligning the print so that the greatest stresses are along the X or Y axes (parallel to the layer lines), you can significantly improve the part’s durability and performance. Taking print orientation into account from the start can help ensure the final object meets both functional and strength requirements.

Setting your maximum volumetric speed (MVS) is a crucial step in optimizing 3D print quality and preventing under-extrusion. Volumetric speed represents the rate at which your printer’s hotend can reliably melt and extrude filament, measured in cubic millimeters per second (mm³/s). When you set a cap on the MVS in your slicer, your printer will automatically adjust the movement speed based on your chosen layer height and line width. The slicer calculates the resulting maximum speed using the formula: Print Speed (mm/s) = Volumetric Flow Rate (mm³/s) / (Layer Height (mm) × Line Width (mm))

You can also use THIS handy calculator.

If you increase either the layer height or line width (common with larger nozzles), the maximum print speed is automatically reduced to prevent exceeding the hotend’s capacity. For example, with a higher layer height or wider extrusion, your print speed must decrease to maintain the same volumetric flow, ensuring consistent, high-quality extrusion and avoiding issues like gaps, jams, or weak prints.

This approach is more robust than simply setting a maximum “print speed” in mm/s. Linear print speed alone does not account for how much material is being deposited per second: with a large nozzle or big layer height, the filament volume per second can easily surpass what the hotend can handle even at modest print speeds. By capping the MVS, your printer will slow down automatically for thicker lines or layers, yet speed up when printing thinner or finer layers—all while staying within safe extrusion limits for your specific printer and filament. This adaptive control makes volumetric speed a far more representative metric for maximum throughput than just relying on linear print speeds, especially for advanced users who frequently change nozzle size or print settings.

Over-extrusion in 3D printing is generally easier to detect with the naked eye than under-extrusion. When too much filament is extruded, you often see obvious signs like blobs, stringing, or excessively thick layers where the filament appears to spill or ooze beyond the intended boundaries. These visual cues—such as raised ridges between surface lines or drooping layers caused by excess material—make over-extrusion relatively straightforward to identify. The surface of the print may look messy or oversized, which indicates that the printer is pushing out more material than necessary.

In contrast, under-extrusion can be subtler visually but can have a more serious impact on print strength. Even if an under-extruded part looks acceptable on the surface, missing or thin filament deposition means the layers are not fully bonded, and the internal structure can be fragile. This results in prints that crumble, crack, or tear more easily under stress, since insufficient filament compromises the object's mechanical integrity. Gaps between layers or sparse infill may not always be immediately apparent, but they weaken the part significantly. So while under-extrusion can be harder to spot at a glance than over-extrusion, it poses a greater risk to the durability and functionality of the final print. Monitoring print quality with attention to detail is necessary to avoid these hidden weaknesses.

This means visual inspection alone might not detect under-extrusion sufficiently, making calibration and careful tuning essential for strong, reliable 3D prints. Over-extrusion errors warn you visually that something is wrong, but under-extrusion can quietly degrade part quality even if it looks good initially.

Tree supports and normal (or linear) supports represent two distinct types of support structures used in 3D printing to handle overhangs and complex geometries, each with their own pros and cons. Tree supports grow organically around the model, starting with a thick base on the build plate and branching out to support overhangs only where necessary. This tapered, hollow design uses less filament and typically reduces print time compared to normal supports. Because tree supports touch the model at fewer points—often just at the tips of their branches—they generally cause less surface damage and are easier to remove. Additionally, since tree supports primarily attach to the build plate rather than the print itself, there is a lower chance that support material will be deposited directly atop the model, improving the final surface finish on supported areas. However, tree supports have less surface area to support overhangs, which can sometimes result in weaker support for delicate features or a worse looking underside of your print. They are also more prone to being knocked off the build plate during printing, especially if the base is narrow or the print is tall and wobbly.

Normal supports, on the other hand, consist of vertical structures printed straight up from the build plate directly underneath overhangs. These supports provide a larger contact surface area with the underside of overhangs, often leading to better overhang quality by offering solid, stable backing during printing. They are less likely to detach from the build plate mid-print, providing more reliable support for heavy or extensive overhang areas. The downside is that normal supports consume more filament and typically lengthen print times due to their denser, solid design. Moreover, normal supports often touch the print’s upper surfaces, which can leave marks or require more post-processing to achieve a smooth finish.

Many modern slicers offer a hybrid support option that combines the benefits of both systems. In hybrid mode, the slicer generates tree-like supports farther from the model to save material and reduce print time, and gradually transitions to normal supports as it approaches the model surface to provide a sturdier, larger contact area for better overhang support and easier removal. This approach captures most of the advantages of both support types—minimizing filament usage and print time like tree supports while maintaining the stronger, more reliable interface with the print that normal supports provide. Hybrid supports therefore offer a versatile solution for complex prints requiring careful balance between material efficiency and surface quality.

Composite 3D printing remains an exciting and relatively untapped area within the 3D printing world. While it has not yet been fully explored or mainstreamed, the ongoing development and increasing availability of multi-tool and multi-material printers are paving the way for truly innovative and complex composite prints. As these advanced machines become more accessible, we can expect to see groundbreaking combinations of materials that were previously impossible or impractical to combine, pushing the boundaries of what 3D printing can achieve.

At its core, composite 3D printing involves using two or more distinct materials within a single print to produce parts that possess enhanced or hybrid properties, leveraging the strengths of each individual material. For example, by combining flexible TPU with rigid PLA in one object, engineers can create components that are not only strong and durable but also capable of withstanding impact and absorbing energy—so much so that such prints can even stop a bullet in certain experimental applications. This ability to tailor mechanical, thermal, or chemical properties on a layer-by-layer basis opens up exciting opportunities in fields ranging from protective gear to custom medical devices and beyond. As the technology matures, composite 3D printing is set to revolutionize how we think about material performance and design freedom.

Thermoplastic Polyurethane (TPU) has revolutionized 3D printing with its unique blend of rubber-like flexibility and industrial-grade durability. Known for its shock absorption, chemical resistance, and stretchability, TPU is the go-to filament for functional parts that demand elasticity without sacrificing strength. From custom phone cases to automotive seals, TPU unlocks applications where rigidity fails.

What Is TPU?

TPU is a flexible thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) that combines the elasticity of rubber with the printability of plastic. Unlike rigid filaments, TPU can stretch up to 500% of its original length before breaking, making it ideal for bendable, impact-resistant components. Its durability against abrasion, oils, and low temperatures further cements its role in industrial and consumer applications.

Wear resistant 3D printing materials are essential for parts that must withstand friction, abrasion, and mechanical stress over time. Selecting the right material ensures longer component lifespan and reduces maintenance needs. Different filaments offer various levels of wear resistance, impacted by both chemical composition and the presence of added fibers or lubricants.

Common Wear Resistant 3D Printing Materials

• Nylon: Known for its toughness, semi-flexibility, and high impact and abrasion resistance. Nylon is a standout choice for functional and moving parts, such as gears and bushings, especially when reinforced with carbon or glass fibers for even greater durability.​

Print quality and printing time depend on several factors, with nozzle diameter and layer height having the most significant impact.

Nozzle Diameter

Nozzle diameter determines the line width of printed segments, which affects tolerances in the X/Y direction. While some users adjust line width slightly, maintaining the same value as the nozzle diameter is common. Experimenting with a 10% increase has produced favorable results (e.g., printing a 0.44mm line width with a 0.4mm nozzle).

Any section of the print narrower than the line width will not be printed; therefore, a thinner nozzle diameter can lead to higher print quality. Certain slicer settings may allow for printing thin walls, though dimensions smaller than the line width may not be accurate.

Layer Height Fundamentals

Layer height significantly impacts print quality and duration, with optimal ranges dictated by nozzle diameter. A 0.1mm layer height triples print time compared to 0.3mm when using the same nozzle and speeds, as it requires three times the number of layers. Reliable results are achievable within 25–75% of the nozzle diameter (though some suggest 20-80%):

• Example: A 0.4mm nozzle performs best at 0.1–0.3mm layer heights

3D printers are categorized by their motion systems, which dictate how the print head and build platform move during printing. Among various motion systems, the three primary types are Cartesian, CoreXY, and Delta. While other motion systems exist, these three are the most common and widely used in desktop 3D printing.

Other Motion Systems

Besides Cartesian, CoreXY, and Delta, there are other motion systems such as Polar printers, SCARA (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm) printers, continuous belt, and H-Bot systems. However, these are less common in consumer and hobbyist 3D printers.

Printing with Carbon Fiber and Other Brittle Filaments

Fiber-reinforced materials such as carbon fiber (CF) and glass fiber (GF) composites offer excellent stiffness, strength, and dimensional stability, but they also tend to be more brittle on the spool than base polymers. This brittleness means certain precautions must be taken when handling and printing these materials to prevent filament breakage and ensure consistent extrusion.

Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) safe 3D printing materials are specially engineered polymers designed to safely dissipate static electricity, protecting sensitive electronic components and assemblies from damage caused by sudden static discharges. These materials incorporate conductive additives like carbon nanotubes or carbon fibers, which provide controlled electrical conductivity or electrostatic dissipation.

Why ESD Safe Materials Matter

Static electricity buildup can harm delicate electronic circuits and components during manufacturing, assembly, or handling. Using ESD safe materials for 3D printing jigs, fixtures, housings, and tools helps prevent electrostatic discharge events that can degrade or destroy sensitive electronics. This protection is critical in industries like electronics manufacturing, clean rooms, aerospace, and automotive sectors where reliability and safety are paramount.

When selecting 3D printing materials for electrical insulation applications, understanding key electrical properties such as dielectric strength and dielectric constant is essential. These properties determine how well a material insulates against electrical voltage and how it interacts with electrical signals, impacting safety, signal integrity, and overall performance.

Dielectric Strength (Breakdown Voltage)

Dielectric strength measures how much voltage a material can withstand per millimeter before electrical breakdown occurs, essentially how well it resists electricity passing through it. A higher dielectric strength indicates better insulating capability. Fiberon PPS-GF20, reinforced with 20% glass fiber by weight (GF), exhibits a dielectric strength of approximately 6.05 kV/mm. This is about 12 times higher than Fiberon PPS-CF10 (carbon fiber reinforced), which has 0.45 kV/mm. The significantly elevated dielectric strength of PPS-GF20 makes it highly suitable for moderate voltage insulation, ensuring safer operation compared to carbon fiber reinforced materials or air in many applications.

Reducing purge waste on an AMS or similar multi-material system can make a significant difference in both material savings and print efficiency. Multi-material FDM printers use purge cycles to clear previous filament from the hotend during color or material swaps, but there are practical strategies to minimize this waste.

Multi-Hotend Printers: The Best Solution

The most effective way to reduce purge waste is to use a printer equipped with more than one hotend and nozzle. IDEX (Independent Dual Extruder) and tool changer systems keep each filament assigned to its own hotend, minimizing the need for purging during swaps. Dual-head and similar machines provide much lower waste than single-nozzle systems that rely on AMS, MMU, ERCF, or Palette units.

• Open ideaMaker on your computer.

• Click the Library button in the top toolbar to access the ideaMaker Library.

• Browse or search in the Library for the slicing profile you want to import.

• On the profile detail page, click “Import to ideaMaker.”

Currently, we do not have any data confirming that any 3D printing material is FDA food-safe. In fact, no 3D printing material on the market holds FDA food-safe certification. This is because food safety certification applies not only to the raw material but to the final printed object itself. Factors such as the object's shape, the type of build plate used, the printing environment, and the entire manufacturing process all affect whether the object can be deemed food-safe. At present, the FDA does not offer a specific certification tailored for 3D-printing materials.

Even if the filament material itself is considered food-safe, the 3D printing process usually compromises that safety. The layered nature of fused filament fabrication creates microscopic gaps and crevices between layers, which can easily harbor bacteria and contaminants. These tiny spaces make thorough cleaning extremely difficult, so while the object might be safe for a single use, reliably sanitizing it for repeated food contact is challenging. Additionally, the use of brass nozzles in printing can introduce another safety concern. Brass contains lead, and during the printing process, small amounts of lead may be transferred onto the surface of the print. This contamination makes the printed part potentially unsafe for food use as well. Because of these factors—including material, process, and equipment—it is important to approach 3D-printed objects with caution when considering them for any food-related application, often necessitating additional post-processing, sealing, or certification to ensure safety.

FDM 3D printing has unlocked a fascinating paradox: the ability to create machines that can, in turn, create more machines. From extruder assemblies to enclosures, hobbyists and engineers now use FDM to fabricate custom 3D printers tailored to specific needs—whether ultra-fast CoreXY systems, multi-material tool-changing setups, or industrial-grade enclosures. This self-replicating capability has roots in the RepRap movement, which pioneered open-source 3D printers in the 2000s, but modern advancements like Voron builds and modular tool changers have pushed the concept into new realms of precision and customization.

The Evolution of DIY 3D Printers

• RepRap Roots: Early DIY printers relied on printed parts and basic hardware, proving FDM’s potential for self-replication.

• Voron Revolution: Open-source Voron printers introduced CoreXY kinematics, quad gantry leveling, and community-driven innovation, enabling industrial-grade speed and accuracy at hobbyist prices.

• Tool-Changing Systems: Printers like the E3D ToolChanger and DIY similar systems such as the Voron StealthChanger allow swapping extruders, lasers, or CNC heads mid-print, enabling multi-material or multi-functional workflows.

Designing for Custom Needs

• CoreXY vs. Cartesian: CoreXY’s belt-driven dual-motor system reduces moving mass, enabling faster prints without sacrificing detail.

• Enclosures: Heat-resistant materials ensure stable chamber temperatures for ABS, ASA, and high-performance filaments.

• Modularity: Printed mounts, cable chains, and toolhead adapters let users upgrade components (e.g., adding a pellet extruder or high-flow hotend).

Polymaker Materials for Printer Construction

Polymaker’s engineering-grade filaments are critical for durable, heat-resistant components in custom printers.

1. PolyLite™ ABS

• Properties: High impact resistance, higher heat deflection (~95°C), and ease of post-processing (sanding, acetone smoothing).

• Applications: Printer frames, motor mounts, and electronics enclosures needing rigidity and thermal stability.

2. PolyLite™ ASA

• Properties: Superior UV and weather resistance, higher heat tolerance (~100°C), and minimal warping compared to ABS.

• Applications: Outdoor-rated enclosures, tool-changing docks, and parts exposed to heated chambers or sunlight.

Why ABS/ASA Dominate

• Enclosure Compatibility: Withstand chamber temperatures up to 90°C, critical for warping-prone materials like polycarbonate.

• Layer Adhesion: Optimized formulations reduce delamination risks in structural components like Z-axis braces.

• Cost Efficiency: Affordable alternative to metal for non-load-bearing parts (e.g., spool holders, fan ducts).

Case Study: Building a Voron 2.4

1. Frame: Print belt tensioners, gantry mounts, and panel clips in ASA for dimensional stability.

2. Electronics: Use ABS for the control board case to shield components from heat.

3. Toolhead: Optimize airflow with ASA ducts resistant to hotend proximity.

Tool-Changing Innovations

• Mechanical Simplicity: DIY designs use printed latches and docks to swap hotends without motors, slashing costs.

• Multi-Material: Print soluble supports with one toolhead and high-temp filament with another, all in a single print.

• Hybrid Systems: Add laser engravers or CNC mills to FDM bases using printed adapters.

The Future of Self-Replicating Printers

Open-source ecosystems like Voron’s community are democratizing industrial-grade capabilities, while Polymaker’s materials ensure reliability. Whether building a compact Voron 0.2 for rapid prototyping or a Voron 350 for full-scale production, FDM empowers makers to iterate endlessly—proving that the most revolutionary tool in 3D printing is the printer itself.

By combining modular design, advanced materials, and community ingenuity, custom 3D printers are no longer just tools—they’re testaments to the technology’s limitless potential.

Nylon, also known as polyamide (PA), is a family of thermoplastic polymers valued in FDM 3D printing for their strength, flexibility, and wear resistance. Despite their appealing mechanical properties, nylon filaments are among the most challenging materials to print due to their high printing temperatures, tendency to warp, and strong affinity for moisture. Several nylon types are formulated for FDM printing, each with distinct characteristics that influence print quality, mechanical performance, and ease of use.

PA6 (Nylon 6)

PA6 is one of the most common nylons used in FDM printing. It is a tough material with high tensile strength and excellent impact resistance, making it suitable for functional parts and mechanical components. However, PA6 absorbs moisture quickly from the air, which can lead to bubbles and poor layer adhesion if not properly dried. It also has a strong tendency to warp unless printed with a heated bed and enclosed chamber. Typical extrusion temperatures range from 250°C to 270°C. After annealing, PA6 parts gain improved dimensional stability and heat resistance due to increased crystallization.

PA66 (Nylon 66)

PA66 is similar to PA6 in composition but has a slightly higher melting point, around 260°C. This gives it superior stiffness, wear resistance, and heat resistance compared to PA6. It exhibits low creep under load and performs well for precision mechanical parts. Like PA6, PA66 is highly hygroscopic and prone to warping during printing, so it requires dry filament storage, a heated bed (around 80°C–100°C), and an enclosure. The material hardens considerably after annealing. However, when exposed to humidity afterward, it becomes more ductile and impact resistant.

PA12 (Nylon 12)

PA12 is a common engineering-grade filament that differs from PA6 and PA66 through its longer molecular chain and lower moisture absorption. This makes it more dimensionally stable and easier to print with fewer warping issues. Its typical extrusion temperature ranges between 240°C and 260°C. PA12 provides high impact resistance, very good chemical resistance, and greater flexibility than other nylons. Its lower water absorption also means it retains dimensional accuracy longer in humid environments. PA12 is heat resistant to around 180°C and responds well to annealing for further crystallization and toughness.

PA612 (Nylon 612)

PA612 combines characteristics of PA6 and PA12. It offers lower moisture absorption than PA6, while maintaining greater stiffness than PA12. The result is a material well-suited for applications requiring balanced mechanical strength and stability. It is easier to print than PA6 or PA66 and less prone to warping. PA612 parts have smooth surfaces and are less brittle, making them versatile for both aesthetic and functional components. Heat resistance is moderate, generally below PA66 but above PA12.

Other Nylon Blends and Composites

Some nylon formulations blend multiple polyamide types or include additives to target specific goals. Fiber-reinforced nylons are especially popular: carbon fiber and glass fiber reinforcements enhance stiffness, strength, and dimensional stability while reducing shrinkage and warping. These additives also improve surface finish by limiting thermal deformation during printing. However, fiber-filled filaments are more abrasive, requiring hardened nozzles.

Printability Challenges

Printing nylon successfully requires high extrusion temperatures (typically 240°C–280°C), a heated print bed, and controlled ambient temperatures (so long as not printing with Polymaker nylons). Nylon’s natural hygroscopicity causes moisture absorption, which can create steam pockets during extrusion, leading to surface pitting and weak layer adhesion. Filament should always be kept dry, ideally in a sealed container or a filament dryer. Warping is another major difficulty, as nylon contracts strongly during cooling.

To address warping, Polymaker has developed Warp Free Technology, which optimizes the material formulation to relieve internal stress during cooling. This allows larger nylon parts to be printed on open-frame printers with reduced risk of curling or layer separation.

Effects of Annealing and Moisture

Annealing nylon parts enhances their crystallization, increasing structural strength, stiffness, and heat resistance. Fully crystallized parts perform better under load and at elevated temperatures. Over time, however, when parts absorb moisture, the polymer chains become more mobile, resulting in higher ductility and impact resistance but less rigidity. This tradeoff makes nylon applications adaptable for parts requiring toughness and slight flexibility.

Summary

Each nylon type brings a different balance between ease of printing, mechanical performance, and environmental stability. PA6 and PA66 provide high rigidity and heat performance at the cost of more challenging print behavior, while PA12 and PA612 are more forgiving and moisture-resistant. Reinforced nylons further address warping and mechanical limits. With proper drying, temperature management, and the use of advanced formulations like Warp Free Technology, nylon remains one of the most capable materials for producing durable, functional parts in FDM 3D printing.

Acrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate (ASA) has emerged as a superior alternative to ABS in 3D printing, combining durability with exceptional resistance to weathering. Known for its ability to withstand UV exposure, heat, and harsh environments, ASA is the go-to filament for functional parts that thrive outdoors. From automotive components to garden fixtures, ASA bridges the gap between industrial-grade performance and practical printability.

What Is ASA?

ASA is a thermoplastic polymer engineered to excel in outdoor and high-stress environments. Its composition - acrylonitrile for chemical resistance, styrene for rigidity, and acrylate for UV stability - makes it a robust alternative to ABS. Unlike ABS, ASA retains its color and mechanical properties even after prolonged sun exposure, thanks to its UV-resistant acrylic ester elastomer.

Printing with ASA: Precision and Preparation

ASA demands careful calibration to balance adhesion, warping, and layer bonding. Here’s how to optimize your prints:

Key Settings

• Nozzle Temperature: 240–280°C (start at 250°C and adjust based on filament brand).

• Bed Temperature: 90–110°C (heated bed essential for adhesion).

• Print Speed: 35–70 mm/s (slower speeds improve layer bonding).

• Ambient Temperature: Maintain a draft-free, warm environment or use an enclosed printer (60°C chamber ideal).

Adhesion and Warping

• Build Plate: Use PEI sheets, BuildTak, or adhesion items such as Magigoo Original for reliable first-layer grip.

• Enclosure (or warm ambient air): Critical for minimizing warping and cracking, especially in large prints.

• Cooling: Reduce or disable part cooling fans to prevent rapid cooling and warping.

Challenges

• Fumes: ASA emits VOCs during printing; ensure proper ventilation or air filtration.

• Moisture Sensitivity: Store filament in a dry, sealed container to prevent moisture absorption.

• Stringing: Fine-tune retraction (1–2 mm at 20–30 mm/s) to minimize oozing.

Advantages of ASA

1. UV Resistance: Retains color and strength under prolonged sun exposure, ideal for outdoor signs, automotive trim, and patio fixtures.

2. Thermal Stability: Heat deflection temperature of 86–96°C (1.8 MPa) outperforms PLA and rivals ABS.

3. Mechanical Strength: Tensile strength of 47.1 MPa and impact resistance of 180 J/m (notched) ensure durability in high-stress applications.

4. Chemical Resistance: Withstands oils, acids, and alkalis, suitable for industrial or automotive parts.

Limitations of ASA

1. Print Complexity: Requires warm ambient air, heated bed, and precise temperature control.

2. Fume Management: Strong odor during printing necessitates ventilation.

3. Not Food-Safe: Unsuitable for kitchenware or medical applications.

4. Material Sensitivity: Prone to warping if printed in humid or drafty environments.

ASA vs. ABS: A Practical Comparison

Applications of ASA

• Automotive: Exterior trim, mirror housings, and under-hood components.

• Outdoor Fixtures: Garden tools, patio furniture, and UV-resistant signage.

• Industrial: Jigs, enclosures, and chemical-resistant parts.

• Consumer Goods: Durable phone cases, outdoor toys, and sporting equipment.

Requirements to Print ASA

• Enclosure or warm ambient air

• Not needed, but all-metal hotend is recommended if attempting to print above 240°C

PET for 3D Printing: Balancing Clarity, Strength, and Sustainability

Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) is a widely recognized thermoplastic, best known for its use in water bottles and food packaging. In 3D printing, PET offers a unique blend of transparency, chemical resistance, and recyclability, making it an eco-friendly alternative to traditional filaments like PLA and ABS. While not as common as its glycol-modified counterpart PETG, PET is gaining traction for specialized applications where rigidity and sustainability are priorities.

What Is PET?

PET is a lightweight, semi-rigid thermoplastic prized for its clarity, strength, and recyclability. Unlike PETG, which incorporates glycol to improve flexibility, pure PET retains a higher density and rigidity, resulting in parts with enhanced mechanical properties. Its amorphous structure minimizes warping, while its low moisture absorption (compared to PETG) reduces the need for extensive drying.

Printing with PET: Key Considerations

PET’s printing behavior balances accessibility and technical nuance. While easier to handle than ABS, it demands careful temperature control to optimize results.

Optimal Settings

• Nozzle Temperature: 230–245°C (higher than PLA but lower than PETG).

• Bed Temperature: 80–90°C (heated bed required for adhesion).

• Cooling Fan: 10–25% to maintain detail without compromising layer bonding.

• Retraction: 1–2 mm at 20–30 mm/s to minimize stringing.

Adhesion Tips

PET adheres well to PEI sheets, glass beds, or painter’s tape. Glue sticks or adhesives can further enhance bed grip.

Challenges

• Warping: Though less prone than ABS, PET may warp on large prints without a heated bed.

• Stringing: PET’s viscosity requires precise retraction tuning to avoid oozing.

• Moisture Sensitivity: While less hygroscopic than PETG, PET still benefits from dry storage to prevent print defects.

Advantages of PET

1. Strength and Rigidity: PET is denser and harder than PETG, offering superior mechanical strength for functional parts like gears or enclosures.

2. Transparency: Maintains glass-like clarity when printed slowly, ideal for display models or light diffusers.

3. Chemical Resistance: Withstands exposure to oils, acids, and alkalis, suitable for industrial or automotive components.

4. Sustainability: Recyclable and often available in recycled variants, reducing environmental impact.

Limitations of PET

1. Brittleness: Pure PET is more brittle than PETG, limiting its use in high-impact applications.

2. Heat Resistance: Moderate heat tolerance (~70–80°C) makes it unsuitable for high-temperature environments.

3. Post-Processing: Cannot be smoothed with acetone, limiting aesthetic customization.

4. Printing Nuance: Requires precise temperature control to balance adhesion and surface quality.

PET vs. PETG: A Comparative Overview

Applications of PET in 3D Printing

• Industrial Components: Durable housings, jigs, and fixtures requiring chemical resistance.

• Consumer Goods: Transparent containers, display stands, or household appliances.

• Electronics: Insulating casings for devices exposed to oils or solvents.

• Sustainable Manufacturing: Recycled PET filaments for eco-conscious prototyping.

Requirements to Print PETG

There should be no specific requirements to print PETG outside of a heated build plate unless using a special blend of it which should be noted by the manufacturer. If you want to print PEG above 240°C - then you will need an all-metal hotend.

This glycol-modified version of PET plastic combines the best traits of its counterparts, offering ease of use and versatility. Whether you’re crafting functional prototypes or parts requiring chemical resistance, PETG is a filament worth mastering. Let’s explore what makes it a favorite among makers and professionals alike.

What Is PETG?

PETG is a thermoplastic derived from PET (the same plastic used in water bottles), modified with glycol to enhance flexibility and reduce brittleness. This adjustment makes it more suitable for 3D printing, as it improves layer adhesion and reduces shrinkage during cooling. PETG’s unique blend of properties bridges the gap between PLA’s user-friendliness and ABS’s higher heat resistance, making it ideal for projects that demand both slightly higher heat resistance, chemical resistance, and practicality.

Printing with PETG: Tips and Techniques

Printing with PETG is straightforward but requires attention to detail. Unlike PLA, which thrives with minimal setup, PETG benefits from precise temperature control. A nozzle temperature between 220–260°C and a heated bed at 70–85°C ensure optimal layer bonding. While PETG doesn’t warp as aggressively as ABS, a heated bed is still recommended to prevent lifting.

Adhesion can be tricky: too little, and prints detach; too much, and they fuse to the bed. Solutions like glue sticks, painter’s tape, or PEI sheets strike the right balance. PETG’s tendency to ooze and string demands careful retraction settings - 1–2 mm at 20–30 mm/s - to keep surfaces clean. Faster travel times to prevent oozing is recommended. A silicone nozzle sock helps prevent filament buildup, while slower first-layer speeds (20–30 mm/s) improve bed adhesion.

Advantages of PETG

PETG’s popularity stems from its well-rounded strengths.

Chemical resistance is a standout feature. PETG withstands exposure to acids, alkalis, oils, and UV light, making it ideal for outdoor applications like garden tools, automotive components, or UV-exposed signage. Some variants are even FDA-approved for food contact, though certifications should always be verified for safety.

Transparency adds to PETG’s appeal. Unlike many opaque filaments, it retains a glass-like clarity when printed slowly, perfect for light diffusers, vases, or display models. Combined with low warping and excellent layer adhesion, PETG is a forgiving material for both beginners and experts.

Limitations of PETG

No material is perfect, and PETG has its quirks. Stringing and oozing are common challenges, requiring meticulous retraction tuning and travel speed adjustments. Post-processing options are limited compared to ABS, as PETG can’t be smoothed with acetone.

PETG is also generally not impact resistant - meaning it can shatter when dropped - depending on the manufacturer's formula.

PETG vs. Other Filaments

PETG occupies a unique niche in the 3D printing ecosystem. It outperforms PLA in heat resistance (withstanding up to 80°C) but lacks ABS’s higher temperature tolerance (100–110°C) and lacks high impact resistance. Unlike TPU, PETG isn’t flexible but offers greater rigidity for structural parts. Its chemical resistance surpasses both PLA and ABS, while its transparency rivals specialized filaments like clear ABS.

Applications of PETG

PETG’s versatility shines across industries. Hobbyists use it for durable phone cases, tool handles, and cosplay props. Engineers rely on it for functional prototypes, mechanical parts, and robotics components. In food-related applications, PETG’s potential for food safety (when final print is certified) suits it for kitchen utensils or storage containers.

Requirements to Print PETG

There should be no specific requirements to print PETG outside of a heated build plate unless using a special blend of it which should be noted by the manufacturer. If you want to print PEG above 240°C - then you will need an all-metal hotend.

Printing Temperature refers to the temperature setting for the hotend. This setting is material-dependent and may require adjustment based on nozzle diameter and layer height. Incorrect temperature settings can lead to nozzle clogs, potentially resulting in a challenging cleanup process. The "Material Science" section provides more detailed information about melting points, suitable temperatures for different filaments, and how print speeds and layer heights can affect extrusion temperature.

Generic print temperature ranges for various materials are as follows:

• PLA: 180°C – 220°C

• ABS: 235°C – 265°C

• ASA: 230°C – 255°C

• PETG: 245°C – 260°C

• Nylon: 240°C – 300°C

It's important to note that these settings may need adjustment depending on the specific manufacturer and the 3D printer being used. For consistent printing above 240°C, and for any printing above 260°C, an all-metal hotend is necessary.

The Role of Temperature in 3D Printing

Temperature is a critical variable in 3D printing, influencing material flow, layer adhesion, and surface finish. Precise control ensures optimal extrusion, bed adhesion, and structural integrity. Key components like the hotend, nozzle, and heated bed rely on temperature stability to produce consistent results. Misconfigured temperatures can lead to warping, clogs, or surface defects such as matte finishes or blobs.

How Temperature Affects Print Quality

Surface Finish

• Glossy vs. Matte: Higher extrusion temperatures typically yield glossy surfaces, as molten filament flows smoothly and solidifies uniformly. Lower temperatures or rapid cooling create matte finishes due to incomplete melting and increased shear forces during extrusion.

• Speed Impact: High-speed printing reduces filament residence time in the hotend, preventing full melting and introducing shear stresses. This leads to matte textures unless temperatures are adjusted upward or cooling is minimized.

Layer Adhesion and Strength

• Optimal Range: Printing within a material’s recommended temperature range ensures strong interlayer bonding. Excessively high temperatures degrade polymers (e.g., hydrolysis in PETG), while low temperatures weaken layer adhesion.

• Hotend Design: Efficient hotends maintain consistent melt zones, reducing thermal fluctuations that cause uneven extrusion.

Material Behavior

• PLA: Prints best at 190–220°C; excessive heat causes stringing and potential heat creep clogging, while low temps result in poor adhesion.

• PETG: Requires 220–250°C but is prone to moisture absorption and degradation at high temperatures.

• ABS: Needs 230–260°C and a heated bed (~100°C) to prevent warping.

Hotend Mechanics and Temperature Control

The hotend is responsible for melting filament uniformly. Its components include:

1. Heating Block: Heats the nozzle to target temperatures.

2. Thermistor/Thermocouple: Monitors temperature for feedback control.

3. Heat Break: Isolates the melt zone to prevent jams.

4. Nozzle: Determines extrusion width and influences flow dynamics.

Challenges at High Speeds:

• Residence Time: Filament must spend sufficient time in the melt zone to reach the target temperature. High extrusion rates shorten this period, leading to under-melting and matte finishes.

• Shear Forces: Rapid extrusion increases friction between the filament and nozzle walls, causing surface irregularities.

Balancing Speed and Temperature for Desired Finishes

High-Speed Printing Adjustments

1. Increase Nozzle Temperature: Compensate for reduced residence time (e.g., +5–10°C for PLA).

2. Reduce Cooling: Lower part-cooling fan speeds to allow slower solidification, promoting gloss.

3. Optimize Flow Rate: Calibrate extrusion multipliers to prevent under- or over-extrusion.

Slicer Settings for Glossy Surfaces

• Speed Reduction: Slower outer perimeters improve melt quality.

• Temperature Towers: Test a range of temperatures to identify the optimal setting for gloss and strength.

Common Pitfalls and Solutions

1. Overheating:

   • Symptoms: Stringing, oozing, degraded material properties, clogs.

   • Fix: Lower nozzle temperature and ensure adequate cooling.

2. Under temperature:

Advanced Considerations

• Thermal Management: Enclosures stabilize ambient temperatures for ABS and other warp-prone materials.

• Nozzle Geometry: High-flow nozzles improve melt efficiency for fast printing.

Polypropylene (PP) has carved a niche in 3D printing as a lightweight, fatigue-resistant thermoplastic ideal for functional prototypes and end-use parts. Known for its presence in household items like storage containers and automotive components, PP combines flexibility, chemical resistance, and durability, making it a standout choice for applications requiring repeated stress or exposure to harsh environments.

What Is Polypropylene?

Polypropylene is a semi-crystalline thermoplastic prized for its balance of rigidity and flexibility. Its hydrophobic nature, low density, and resistance to fatigue make it a go-to material for living hinges, snap-fit components, and lightweight parts. Key characteristics include:

• Chemical Resistance: Withstands acids, alkalis, and solvents, ideal for medical and automotive uses.

• Fatigue Resistance: Endures repeated bending without cracking (e.g., bottle caps, hinges).

• Low Density: Lightweight yet durable, suitable for weight-sensitive industries like aerospace.

• Water Repellency: Hydrophobic properties prevent moisture absorption, reducing post-print drying needs.

Printing with Polypropylene: Strategies for Success

PP’s semi-crystalline structure and warping tendencies demand precise temperature control and adhesion strategies.

Optimal Settings

• Nozzle Temperature: 210–280°C (varies by formulation; pure PP: 210–230°C, composites: 250–280°C).

• Bed Temperature: 50–80°C (heated bed critical for adhesion).

• Print Speed: 30–50 mm/s (slower speeds enhance layer bonding).

• Adhesion Solutions: Magigoo PP adhesive, PEI sheets, or painter’s tape with glue stick. Attaching cardboard to your printer build plate can help for very stubborn PP prints.

Material Preparation

• Drying: Preheat filament at 70°C for 4–6 hours to minimize moisture-related defects.

• Storage: Keep in airtight containers with desiccant to maintain print quality.

Common Challenges

• Warping: Mitigated by enclosed printers, brims (25–35mm), or rafts for large prints.

• Layer Adhesion: Higher nozzle temperatures (up to 280°C for composites) improve bonding.

• Stringing: Fine-tune retraction (1–2 mm at 20–30 mm/s) to reduce oozing.

Advantages of Polypropylene

1. Fatigue Resistance: Excels in applications with repetitive motion (e.g., living hinges, snap-fit assemblies).

2. Chemical Durability: Resists degradation from oils, fuels, and cleaning agents.

3. Lightweight: Low density (0.9 g/cm³) reduces part weight without sacrificing strength.

4. Hydrophobicity: Minimal moisture absorption compared to nylon or PETG.

Limitations of Polypropylene

1. Warping: Prone to shrinkage without heated enclosures or stable ambient temperatures.

2. Surface Finish: Smooth but may require post-processing (e.g., vapor polishing) for high-gloss aesthetics.

3. Print Complexity: Demands precise temperature control and adhesion solutions.

4. Limited Food Safety: Unsuitable for culinary applications without certification.

Applications of Polypropylene

• Automotive: Bumpers, interior trim, and fluid reservoirs.

• Medical: Sterilization trays, IV components, and non-implantable devices.

• Consumer Goods: Hinged containers, toys, and household fixtures.

• Industrial: Chemical-resistant piping, conveyor components, and snap-fit jigs.

Polypropylene Variants

1. Pure PP (SLS): Natural white with high chemical resistance (e.g., Protolabs’ Polypropylene Natural).

2. PP-Like Resins: Translucent SLA materials (e.g., Somos 9120) mimicking PP’s flexibility.

3. Carbon FPU 50: Ultra-flexible resin with 200% elongation for functional prototypes.

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 3D printing has revolutionized prototyping by offering engineers and designers a fast, cost-effective way to transform digital designs into physical models. As one of the most widely adopted additive manufacturing technologies, FDM builds parts layer by layer using thermoplastic filaments, enabling rapid iteration and validation of concepts across industries.

Key Applications in Prototyping

• Concept Validation: Quickly produce physical models to assess form, ergonomics, and basic functionality, reducing reliance on abstract CAD visualizations.

• Functional Testing: Create prototypes that withstand mechanical stress, thermal conditions, or assembly checks using engineering-grade materials like ABS, PETG, or nylon.

• Design Refinement: Iterate complex geometries—such as lattices, hollow structures, or organic shapes—without the constraints of traditional machining.

• Custom Tooling: Develop jigs, fixtures, or end-of-arm robotic tooling optimized for specific manufacturing workflows.

Advantages Driving Adoption

• Speed: Produce prototypes in hours, bypassing weeks-long lead times associated with CNC or injection molding.

• Cost Efficiency: Eliminate tooling expenses and minimize material waste, ideal for low-volume runs.

• Material Diversity: Leverage filaments ranging from standard PLA to high-performance composites (e.g., carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers) for tailored mechanical properties.

• Scalability

Optimizing Workflows

• Infill Customization: Adjust internal density (e.g., 20% infill for lightweight validation vs. 100% for stress testing) to balance speed and durability.

• Rapid Iteration: Test multiple design variations in parallel, accelerating feedback loops and reducing time-to-market.

• Sustainability: Reduce material waste through additive processes and recycled filament options.

By bridging the gap between digital design and physical reality, FDM empowers teams to innovate faster, mitigate risks early, and deliver market-ready products with precision.

Core Advantages of FDM with PLA

• Speed and Affordability: PLA’s low printing temperatures and minimal warping enable rapid iteration at reduced costs.

• Eco-Friendly Options: Many Polymaker PLAs incorporate recycled content or biodegradable additives.

• Surface Finish Diversity: From matte to silk, Polymaker offers aesthetic flexibility for concept models and functional prototypes.

Polymaker's Portfolio for Prototyping

1. Panchroma™ Matte (formerly PolyTerra™ PLA)

• Properties: Matte surface hides layer lines, organic mineral additives reduce plastic content, and improved bridging performance.

• Applications: Consumer product mockups, ergonomic testing, and eco-conscious designs.

2. Draft PLA

• Properties: Recycled PLA bulk packs (10 spools) optimized for rapid, cost-effective prototyping.

• Applications: Early-stage form/fit validation and disposable jigs.

• Advantages: Jam-Free™ technology ensures reliability in high-volume printing.

3. Matte PLA for Production

• Properties: A matte PLA option at a lower price point.

• Applications: Early-stage form/fit validation and disposable jigs.

• Advantages: Jam-Free™ technology ensures reliability in high-volume printing.

4. PolyLite™ PLA

• Properties: Vibrant colors for workplace organization, minimal warping, and compatibility with all FDM printers.

• Applications: Functional parts, visual aids, and iterative design testing.

5. Other Panchroma™ PLA Options

• Properties: Many amazing color effects from satin, to silk, to sparkle, to glow in the dark and everything in-between.

• Applications: Can give your prototype awesome color effects.

• Printability: Very easy to print on any printer.

6. PolyLite™ PLA Pro

• Properties: Combines high rigidity and impact resistance, bridging engineering-grade performance with PLA’s ease of use.

• Applications: Stress-testable prototypes, snap-fit assemblies, and end-use parts for consumer goods.

• Printability: Retains standard PLA temperatures (190–230°C) while offering 5x the toughness.

7. PolyMax™ PLA

• Properties: Nano-reinforced ductility for exceptional impact resistance, bending without fracture.

• Applications: Durable enclosures, drop-test models, and flexible hinges.

• Cost: Higher price point justified by industrial-grade durability.

Specialty Stronger Options

• Fiberon™ PET-CF: An affordable, easy to print engineering material that will make for an amazing protytpe with stronger properties.

• PolyLite™ ABS: A cost effective more heat resistant option for your prototypes.

Prototyping Workflow Optimization

• Concept Models: Panchroma™ Matte, Matte PLA for Production, and Draft PLA for fast, low-cost iterations.

• Functional Testing: PolyLite™ PLA Pro, PolyMax™ PLA, Fiberon™ PET-CF, and PolyLite™ ABS for stress resistance.

• Aesthetic Validation: other Panchroma™ variants for market-ready visuals.

Polymaker’s PLA ecosystem bridges the gap between desktop 3D printing and industrial demands, enabling prototypes that are both functional and visually representative.

The extruder is the core component of any FDM 3D printer, responsible for feeding, and depositing filament layer by layer. From lightweight Bowden systems to robust direct-drive setups, extruder design profoundly impacts print quality, material compatibility, and speed. Here’s a comprehensive guide to how extruders work, their key types, and critical maintenance practices.

How 3D Printer Extruders Work

The extruder’s primary function is to push filament into the hotend, where it melts and exits through the nozzle. This process involves:

1. Filament Feeding: A stepper motor drives gears to grip and advance the filament.

2. Melting: The hotend heats the filament to its melting point (e.g., 200°C for PLA) after being fed from the extruder.

3. Extrusion: Molten plastic is forced through the nozzle, depositing material onto the build plate.

4. Layer Bonding: A cooling fan solidifies the material, enabling layer adhesion.

Key components include the drive gear (pushes filament), idler (applies pressure), hotend (melts filament), and nozzle (shapes extruded material).

Extruder Types: Bowden vs. Direct Drive

1. Bowden Extruders

• Design: Stepper motor is mounted on the printer frame, with filament fed through a PTFE tube to the hotend.

• Advantages:

  • Reduced print head weight for faster speeds and reduced ghosting.

  • Great for rigid filaments like PLA and PETG.

2. Direct-Drive Extruders

• Design: Stepper motor is mounted directly on the print head, minimizing filament path length.

• Advantages:

  • Superior control for flexible filaments (TPU, TPE).

  • Lower retraction distances improve print clarity.

Advanced Extruder Designs and Features

Modern extruders enhance performance through specialized mechanisms:

• Dual-Gear Systems: Use synchronized gears for consistent grip, reducing filament slip.

• Orbital Gearboxes: Employ compact gear reductions for high torque in lightweight packages.

• High-Temperature Options: Integrate liquid cooling for nozzle temperatures up to 500°C, enabling PEEK and PEI printing.

• Abrasive Filament Handling: Hardened steel gears and nozzles are essential for carbon fiber or glass-filled composites.

Troubleshooting Common Extruder Issues

Under-Extrusion

• Causes: Clogged nozzle, insufficient extruder grip, or incorrect slicer settings.

• Solutions:

  • Clean nozzle and Bowden tube.

  • Increase nozzle temperature or flow rate.

Filament Grinding

• Causes: Worn gears, excessive idler pressure, or incorrect filament diameter.

• Solutions:

  • Replace worn drive gears.

  • Adjust idler tension to balance grip and filament deformation.

Stringing/Oozing

• Causes: Excessive nozzle temperature or inadequate retraction.

• Solutions:

  • Optimize retraction distance (1–2 mm for direct drive; 4–6 mm for Bowden).

  • Enable coasting in slicer settings.

Maintenance Best Practices

• Regular Cleaning: Remove debris from gears and filament paths using brushes or compressed air.

• Lubrication: Apply minimal PTFE grease to gears to reduce friction.

• Filament Storage: Keep hygroscopic materials (nylon, PC) in dry boxes to prevent moisture absorption.

• Nozzle Checks: Inspect for wear when printing abrasives; replace brass nozzles with hardened variants as needed.

Choosing the Right Extruder

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 3D printing has become a cornerstone of at-home creativity, empowering makers to design and produce toys, gadgets, and household items with unprecedented ease. From customizable fidget spinners to intricate marble machines, FDM bridges the gap between imagination and physical reality, making it one of the most accessible technologies for hobbyists and families alike. With repositories such as Thingiverse, Printables, Thangs, and MakerWorld offering millions of free and paid designs, users can instantly download models for everything from educational puzzles to personalized gifts. This democratization of manufacturing has turned everyday households into micro-factories, where broken toys are repaired, unique playthings are born, and STEM learning thrives through hands-on creation.

Design Repositories: A Playground of Possibilities

• Thingiverse: The largest repository, home to classics like posable dinosaurs and print-in-place marble machines.

• Printables: Features contests, tutorials, and models like rotating keychains and customizable organizers.

• Thangs: Aggregates designs from multiple platforms, including seasonal containers and low-poly decorative boxes.

• MakerWorld: Offers AI-powered tools like lithophane generators and creature designers, alongside community-driven projects. Easy one click options to print if using a Bambu Lab printer.

These platforms enable users to print functional gadgets such as RC car bodies and sand play sets, as well as decorative items like glow-in-the-dark figurines and silk-finish vases with minimal effort.

Polymaker Materials: Perfect for Play

Polymaker’s filaments combine durability, aesthetics, and safety, making them ideal for toys and gadgets.

1. Panchroma™ PLA

• Properties: Organic mineral additives reduce plastic content while delivering a an amazing surface finish in any color or effect your heart desires.

• Toys: Educational building blocks, ergonomic fidget tools, random household items, and custom puzzle pieces.

• Variants:

2. PolyLite™ PLA Pro

• Properties: Twice as tough as standard PLA, ideal for snap-fit robots and durable figurines.

• Applications: Articulated action figures, mechanical gears, and drop-resistant enclosures.

3. PolyMax™ PLA

• Properties: Nano-reinforced ductility withstands bending and impact, perfect for flexible hinges and wear-resistant RC parts.

• Examples: Custom Hot Wheels tracks and posable doll joints. Anything that needs a bit more impact resistance.

4. PolyLite™ PLA

• Properties: Affordable very easy to print PLA. Comes in a wide variety of colors.

• Examples: Nearly anything that you want a cool shiny color but do not need added impact or heat resistance.

From Concept to Creation

• Customization: Use Panchroma™ PLA to print personalized items to your hearts desire.

• Sustainability: Draft PLA and Matte PLA for Production can minimizes waste for disposable party toys or prototype iterations while saving you money.

• Education: Panchroma™ unique color effects such as Glow or UV-reactive creates STEM kits like glow-in-the-dark planetary models or chemistry-themed puzzles.

Why FDM Dominates Household Creativity

• Cost: Print a posable dinosaur or a sand play set for just a few dollars in filament.

• Repair: Replace lost LEGO parts or broken toy hinges on demand.

• Innovation: While companies use FDM for prototyping, home users leverage it for bespoke play experiences.

With Polymaker’s material ecosystem and vast design libraries, FDM 3D printing transforms every home into a hub of innovation—where toys are limitless, gadgets are personalized, and creativity knows no bounds.

Nylon (Polyamide, or PA) stands as one of the most versatile engineering-grade materials in 3D printing, prized for its exceptional strength, flexibility, and resistance to wear. Widely used in industries ranging from aerospace to healthcare, nylon bridges the gap between rigid plastics and elastic polymers, enabling functional parts that endure stress, heat, and harsh environments.

What Is Nylon (PA)?

Nylon is a synthetic thermoplastic polyamide known for its semicrystalline structure, which balances rigidity and toughness. This material family includes variants like PA6, PA11, PA12, and glass- or carbon-reinforced composites, each tailored for specific applications. Key characteristics include:

• High Tensile Strength: Withstands mechanical stress and repeated loading.

• Impact Resistance: Absorbs shocks without fracturing, ideal for dynamic parts.

• Thermal Stability: Operates continuously at temperatures up to 120°C (higher for reinforced grades).

• Low Friction Coefficient: Reduces wear in moving parts like gears and bearings.

Printing with Nylon: Challenges and Solutions

Nylon’s hygroscopic nature and warping tendencies demand careful handling, but optimized settings yield reliable results.

Optimal Settings

• Nozzle Temperature: 220–260°C (varies by grade; PA12 typically prints at 230–250°C).

• Bed Temperature: 70–100°C (heated bed critical for adhesion). Not needed for Polymaker's Warp Free™ Nylons.

• Print Speed: 30–60 mm/s (slower speeds enhance layer bonding).

• Enclosure: Required for open-frame printers to minimize warping and drafts. Not needed for Polymaker's Warp Free™ Nylons.

Material Preparation

• Drying: Preheat filament at 50–70°C for 6–8 hours to remove absorbed moisture. Should be kept in dryer entire time being printed.

• Storage: Keep in airtight containers with desiccant to prevent rehydration.

Adhesion and Warping

• Build Plate: Use PEI sheets, Magigoo, or adhesives like a glue stick will help.

• Enclosed Environment: Maintains stable ambient temperatures, reducing warping. Not needed for Polymaker's Warp Free™ Nylons.

Advantages of Nylon

1. Strength and Flexibility: Combines high tensile strength (up to 80 MPa) with elongation at break (15–30%), enabling durable, snap-fit components.

2. Thermal and Chemical Resistance: Withstands oils, fuels, and alkalis, suitable for automotive and industrial applications.

3. Abrasion Resistance: Ideal for gears, bearings, and sliding parts due to low friction.

4. Biocompatibility: Medical-grade variants support prosthetics, orthotics, and surgical guides.

Limitations of Nylon

1. Hygroscopic Behavior: Absorbs moisture rapidly, requiring diligent drying and storage. parts can also absorb moisture after printing - meaning dimensions may change slightly.

2. Warping: Prone to shrinkage without an enclosed printer or heated chamber when not using Polymaker's nylon options.

3. Abrasive Composites: Carbon- or glass-filled variants wear nozzles quickly; use hardened steel or ruby tips.

4. Post-Processing Complexity

Applications of Nylon in 3D Printing

• Aerospace: Flight-grade brackets, ducting, and drone components (using glass-reinforced PA6-GF30).

• Automotive: Fuel lines, under-hood mounts, and custom gaskets.

• Industrial: Jigs, fixtures, conveyor belts, and wear-resistant gears.

• Healthcare: Prosthetic sockets, surgical guides, and biocompatible implants.

Requirements to Print Nylon

This can vary drastically depending on the type of nylon and the manufacturer requirements. Generally speaking though - you should have:

• A filament dryer and way to keep filament dry while not in use.

• All-metal hotend for any nylon requiring over 240°C

• Annealing post-printing for best strength and heat resistance possible.

This article's failure is a result of excess material oozing out of your nozzle when no material should be extruded.

Read the "Material Science" article

As with most problems we cover, if you learn the science behind polymers then it is likely you can figure out how to solve the issue. The specific issue of "Oozing" is directly covered in this article.

Increase retraction settings

Retraction occurs when your printer head is travelling as to reduce any excess material coming out of the nozzle. Essentially you will need higher retraction settings the further your extruder is from your hotend.

This means that when you use a Bowden setup you will need much higher retraction settings than when you use a direct extruder. You will also need higher retraction settings if there is a small gap between your direct extruder and hotend versus something like the Hemera, which has nearly eliminated that gap entirely. The smaller the gap between your extruder and hotend, the less retraction you will need, and the easier it will be to avoid blobs and strings on your print.

It is also very important to understand the material you are using. you can print something in PLA without any blobs or stringiness by just honing in your settings, but it is just about impossible to avoid some strings when printing in PETG. If you plan on printing in PETG, you will likely have to use a razor blade or a heat gun to remove the minor amount of stringing that will be inevitable.

Increase travel speeds

Since these blobs and strings will only occur when the hotend is not actively printing, you can help reduce the amount of time the nozzle is travelling by increasing the travel speeds. So long as your stepper motors and frame can handle the increased acceleration and speeds, you can bump your travel speed way up.

You can have your travel speeds set to 200mm/s or higher with travel accelerations around 2,500mm/s/s or higher on CoreXY machines. If you experience a lot of machine rattling or hear any stepper motor skips, you will want to reduce these speeds. Many new printers such as those made by Bambu Lab will allow for even higher accelerations and travel speeds due to their vibration compensation.

The highest speeds you can go without experiencing issues will drastically help reduce these strings and blobs. Since you aren’t printing while the hotend is travelling, you should not experience any reduced quality in your prints with these high travel speeds.

Play around with Coasting

Coasting replaces the last part of an extrusion path with a travel path. Replacing the last section of a print with a travel path will cause any oozed material to be used to print your part to reduce stringing. As you can see in our “” article, if you have coasting on when you do not have issues with stringing, it can result in holes on the side of your print.

That said, for the majority of inexpensive Bowden printers, you will likely see an improvement in print quality when you utilize Coasting. This is particularly true when printing in something like PETG which is more likely to cause stringing issues than PLA.

Dry or swap material

When a material has absorbed too much moisture, there are a myriad of printing issues that can occur, including a hairy or stringy print. If you ever hear a "popping" or "cracking" noise when you are extruding, then your filament has likely absorbed too much moisture.

Dry out the material or swap to a new spool.

Summary of ways to reduce stringy or hairy 3D prints

• Read "Material Science" article

• Increase retraction settings

• Increase travel speeds

• Try coasting especially if you are using a Bowden style extruder

Elephant foot is an issue where the bottom few layers of your print are much thicker than the rest of your print. Almost as if the material was mushed out before correcting itself after a couple of layers.

This is a fairly straight forward issue to fix as there can only be a couple of causes.

Nozzle too close to build plate

When the first layer has the nozzle too close to the build plate, material is built up, smashed out, and presents itself as thicker than the dimensions of the actual part. Without enough distance between the nozzle and the build plate, this issue is going to be hard to avoid.

The elephant foot would course correct after about 5-10 layers, but the bottom section of your part will definitely be the incorrect dimensions.

Build plate too hot

Another reason this elephant foot failure can occur is from running your build plate too hot for the material being extruded. You should not print PLA with a build plate hotter than 60 degrees Celsius (sometimes only 50 degrees), but if you do, you can have a distorted bottom of your print.

This is because you are setting the build plate higher than the materials glass transition temperature. This means that the material on the bottom few layers becomes deformed as material is deposited on top of them. While it is easier to get good bed adhesion at these high bed temperatures, the deformation causes this elephant foot.

Make sure you are using the proper build plate temperature for the material you are using by referring to the manufacturer suggestions. If you know you have the proper Z-height and are operating within the suggested temperature range, and are still getting an elephant foot, you should attempt reducing your build plate temperature a bit further. Otherwise you can try out the next suggestion to make sure this problem is eliminated.

Use a raft

It is rare that we use a raft on my standard DIY machines, but if elephant foot is a consistent issue, a raft should make this failure disappear. A raft can cure having your nozzle too close to your build plate, and it can also fix having the build plate be too hot. This raft acts as a barrier between your print and the bed and should mean you no longer have any elephant foot issues. The photo above has before and after removing the raft on the same print, and below is this print with a raft (on the right) next to the version with the elephant foot issues (on the left).

Many printers are meant to use a raft standard in order to help with bed adhesion, and so long the settings are dialed in, a raft can be a great solution.

Negative initial layer horizontal expansion

This is a feature in Cura and may be called something different in other slicers. The initial layer horizontal expansion can cause the first layer to have a thicker or thinner expansion. Having a thick expansion can help with bed adhesion, but will increase your elephant foot issues. Setting this number negative can help to mitigate elephant foot on parts you are just having a ton of problems with.

We personally use a raft when this becomes an issue, but going this route should help as well.

Summary of fixes for "Elephant Foot" on 3D prints

• Make sure your nozzle is not too close to the build plate

• Confirm you are running your build plate within the suggested temperature range for the material used.

• Utilize a raft to mitigate the problem entirely.

Using a larger nozzle in 3D printing can result in better layer adhesion primarily due to the increased extrusion width and thicker layers. When the nozzle diameter is larger, it deposits a wider bead of molten filament, which creates a greater surface contact area between successive layers. This increased area facilitates better bonding as more molten material from one layer fuses into the previous layer, enhancing the overall mechanical strength of the print. Thicker layers associated with larger nozzles also mean fewer total layers in the print, which reduces the cumulative number of potential weak interfaces that could cause delamination or layer separation. Therefore, parts printed with larger nozzles often demonstrate improved inter-layer strength because there are simply fewer opportunities for adhesion failures across layers.

Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS) is a high-performance engineering thermoplastic renowned for its exceptional thermal stability, chemical resistance, and mechanical strength. Often used in demanding industries like aerospace, automotive, and electronics, PPS bridges the gap between conventional polymers and advanced composites, making it ideal for functional parts exposed to extreme conditions.

What Is PPS?

PPS is a semi-crystalline polymer with a high degree of purity (up to 65%) and thermal stability. Its molecular structure - composed of benzene rings linked by sulfur atoms - confers rigidity, flame retardancy, and resistance to degradation. Key characteristics include:

Build plate temperature is critical for ensuring proper adhesion, minimizing warping, and achieving consistent print quality. A heated bed softens the first layer of filament, allowing it to bond securely to the surface. However, incorrect temperatures can lead to warping, poor adhesion, or difficulty removing finished prints.

Material-Specific Recommendations

FDM 3D printing has revolutionized the RC aircraft and drone industry, enabling hobbyists and professionals alike to design, prototype, and manufacture lightweight, high-performance components with unprecedented flexibility. From fully printed drone frames to custom aerodynamic fairings for RC planes, FDM empowers users to iterate rapidly, reduce costs, and push the boundaries of innovation. Whether building a lightweight racer for competitive events or a rugged surveillance drone, 3D printing transforms ideas into flight-ready reality.

Applications of FDM in RC Aircraft and Drones

Maintaining your FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) 3D printer is crucial for ensuring consistent print quality, extending its lifespan, and preventing frustrating issues. Regular upkeep involves cleaning, lubrication, tightening, and occasional component replacements. This guide outlines mandatory maintenance practices for optimal performance.

1. Cleanliness: A Foundation for Success

A clean environment is paramount for reliable 3D printing. Dust and debris can interfere with moving parts, clog nozzles, and compromise bed adhesion.

Creality is a globally recognized manufacturer known for accessible 3D printers ranging from budget-friendly models to advanced, feature-rich machines. Their 2025 lineup focuses on high-speed CoreXY models with robust build volumes, enclosed heated chambers for material versatility, and smart filament systems similar to Bambu Lab's AMS. Their printers provide reliable printing for a broad spectrum of materials from PLA to advanced composites.

Creality Ender 3 V3 SE

A continued favorite in the budget category, the Ender 3 V3 SE offers ease of use with quick assembly, auto-bed leveling, and a decent build volume. It is an open-frame design limiting high-temp or specialty filament printing but is excellent for standard PLA, PETG, and TPU.

Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) has long been a cornerstone of both industrial manufacturing and 3D printing. Known for its toughness, heat resistance, and versatility, ABS filament bridges the gap between everyday usability and engineering-grade performance. From LEGO bricks to automotive components, this material’s balance of strength and flexibility makes it a favorite for functional parts that demand durability and added heat resistance.

What Is ABS?

ABS is a thermoplastic polymer composed of acrylonitrile, butadiene, and styrene, combining rigidity, impact resistance, and thermal stability. Unlike PLA, which is derived from plant-based sources, ABS is petroleum-based, giving it higher heat tolerance and mechanical resilience. Its amorphous structure allows it to soften gradually when heated rather than melting abruptly, making it suitable for repeated thermal processing.

Carbon fiber reinforced materials are filled with continuous fibers or fiber particles that result in parts with improved physical properties and high stiffness. There is a variety of carbon fiber reinforced options out there for 3D printing, but they all require drastically different print settings.

Carbon fiber-reinforced filaments combine the benefits of thermoplastics with the strength and stiffness of carbon fibers, creating materials optimized for engineering-grade applications. These composites are ideal for lightweight, durable parts requiring enhanced mechanical properties and dimensional stability.

What Are Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Filaments?

Carbon fiber filaments infuse short carbon fibers into a base thermoplastic (e.g., PLA, PETG, Nylon, ABS, or PC). The fibers increase rigidity, reduce warping, and improve heat resistance while maintaining the printability of the base material.

FDM 3D printing has emerged as a game-changer in industrial tooling, enabling companies worldwide to produce custom jigs, fixtures, molds, and functional prototypes faster and cheaper than ever. By bypassing traditional CNC machining or injection molding, manufacturers now design lightweight, high-strength tools tailored to specific workflows—saving weeks of lead time and thousands in costs. From aerospace composites to automotive assembly lines, FDM democratizes tooling production, empowering even small workshops to innovate like industry giants.

How FDM Transforms Tooling Production

Polycarbonate (PC) is a high-performance thermoplastic revered for its exceptional strength, heat resistance, and optical clarity. Often used in bulletproof glass and aerospace components, PC brings industrial-grade durability to 3D printing. While challenging to print, its unique properties make it indispensable for functional prototypes, automotive parts, and translucent applications requiring resilience.

What Is Polycarbonate?

Polycarbonate is a transparent thermoplastic with high heat resistance and very high impact resistance, capable of withstanding forces that shatter glass or acrylic. Its key attributes include:

FDM 3D printing has revolutionized cosplay by transforming how props, armor, and accessories are designed and produced. Gone are the days of painstaking hand-carving or limited off-the-shelf options—today’s cosplayers can create hyper-accurate, custom-fitted pieces that mirror their favorite characters down to the smallest detail. From intricate Mandolorian helmets to lightweight Final Fantasy swords, FDM empowers makers to bridge the gap between fantasy and reality with unprecedented speed and affordability. Platforms like Thingiverse and Printables host thousands of free designs, while Polymaker’s specialized filaments ensure durability, ease of use, and professional finishes.

Why FDM Dominates Cosplay Creation

Core Concepts in Speed Configuration

Print speed in 3D printing is governed by hardware capabilities, material properties, and slicer settings. Key factors include nozzle diameter, hotend flow capacity, calibrations, and printer kinematics (e.g., Cartesian, CoreXY, Delta). Balancing speed and quality requires understanding how these elements interact.

Ghosting in printing essentially refers to an “echo” where details in your print can be seen outside where they should be, which may also be called “ringing”.

The number one reason this occurs is having your acceleration and jerk settings too high. This is extremely common in 3D printing, especially since many printer manufacturers will auto set the default value for these numbers too high, since it will allow them to advertise faster printing times.

New printers that utilize "input shaper" or "vibration compensation" will calculate a way to compensate for these high vibrations, which is why they are able to print so fast without this ghosting effect.

A part with some minor ghosting is still entirely useable, so printer manufacturers may get away with calling something a successful print that we as makers would be upset with.

Keep in mind this issue should be reduced on a CoreXY or Delta machine, since the increased weight of moving the print bed on Cartesians will make this problem worse.

A slicer is critical software in 3D printing that bridges digital 3D models and physical printers. It converts models (STL, OBJ, 3MF, etc.) into G-code - a machine-readable set of instructions for layer-by-layer printing. The process involves:

1. Layer Segmentation: Dividing the model into horizontal layers (e.g., 0.1–0.3mm thickness).

2. Toolpath Generation: Calculating extruder movements, including travel paths, infill patterns, and support structures.

3. Parameter Configuration