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3MF: A newer file format designed specifically for 3D printing. It is basically G-code along with other relevant slicing information so that you can open a 3MF file into a slicer.

Aluminum Extrusion Rails: These have your carriages move along aluminum extrusion bars via rollers (as compared to Linear Rails or Linear Rods). Think of the original Ender 3 as an example.

Barrel: A heatsink attached to your hotend which is meant to keep a temperature differential from said hotend. The barrel is cooled by a fan and will make sure your filament is only being heated in the hotend and not creeping upward.

Bowden Extruder: An indirect extruder – where the extruder is not directly attached to the hotend and must feed filament over a distance to reach the hotend.

Brim: Lines of print that are touching the perimeter of your print on the build plate. This helps to anchor your part if you think it may warp or get knocked off.

Cartesian: A printer where each axis is controlled and moved independently by a motor. The X-axis operates autonomously from the Y-axis. The Bambu Lab A1 is an example of a cartesian machine.

Cooling Fan(s): The fans used to cool the printed layers quickly to improve print quality. These fans help surface and overhang quality but can increase your chances of warping and delamination on some higher temperature resistant materials.

CoreXY: A printer that synchronizes the X and Y axes movement via stepper motors. When the hotend moves in the X-direction, both motors rotate, and the same applies to the Y-direction. Bambu Lab P1 and X1 printers are examples of CoreXY machines.

Direct Extruder: This is an extruder that feeds directly into the hotend without any added distance.

Endstop: The part that is triggered when you reach the furthest point of your build volume in any direction. This trigger tells the printer it cannot move any further and is used to “home” your machine.

Extruder: The part of the printer that pushes or feeds filament. It is motorized.

Filament: Strands of material – it can be thought of as another term for the material being used in your 3D printer.

Firmware: The software that is embedded into your printer to tell it how to operate. This can either be open-source (Marlin/Klipper) or closed-source.

G-code: The file format used to tell your printer how to move, how fast to move, and how much material to extrude. Slicers turn 3D models into G-code, but you cannot open G-code in a slicer and edit any settings – that would require a 3MF file format.

Gantry Style Printers: This is a term that is may not be being used correctly, but it is how we refer to any machine that moves the build plate up and down in the Z-direction. Can include CoreXY machines like the Bambu Lab X1C, or a Cartesian one like the Ender 5.

Hotend: The part of your printer that melts the filament. It is powered by a heater and uses a thermistor to tell the temperature.

Hygroscopic: How likely your material is to absorb and be affected by moisture. The more hygroscopic the material, the more susceptible it is – meaning the more likely it will need frequent drying.

Jerk: The instantaneous velocity your printer will start at after a directional change or after reaching a full stop. In engineering this refers to something else, but in 3D printing this is what the word means.

Infill: The internal structure of a printed object, typically designed to add strength while reducing material usage and print time.

Layer Height: The thickness of each individual layer of your print. Lower layer heights normally means greater Z-axis detail - but will also result in a print that takes longer to complete.

Leadscrew: A threaded metal part that turns to move an axis by being attached to a stepper motor. These are normally used for the Z axis on printers rather than a belt.

Linear Rails: These use a stiff, steel rail along which the carriages slide via bearings (as compared to Aluminum Extrusion or Linear Rods).

Linear Rods: These have the carriages attached to a smooth rod via bearings (as compared to Aluminum Extrusion or Linear Rails).

Nozzle: A die that is attached to your hotend that will set the diameter thickness of the individual lines for material you are extruding. Common nozzle diameters are between 0.15mm and 1.2mm – though they can come in nearly any size. The larger the diameter – the better the hotend you will require to print fast to heat the material to the proper viscosity. Generally speaking smaller diameter nozzles can result in more X/Y detail, while larger nozzles can usually result in better layer adhesion.

Raft: An initial few layers of material that will be removed after printing, to help the main part of your print stick properly. These are rarely used but can help in certain situations.

Slicer: The software used to convert a 3D model into G-code or a 3MF file.

Skirt: A small amount of purge material that lays around the perimeter of your print on the build plate, but does not touch the print itself. This is solely to make sure your material is printing properly before starting a print but does not add any extra build plate adhesion.

Stepper Motor: Motors used to move your different axes as well as your extruder.

Supports: Temporary structures generated by the slicer software to support overhanging features of a printed object during printing. These can be thought of as scaffolding for your print.

Thermistor: A thermostat which will tell the temperature of your hotend (or possibly your build plate). It will tell your printer if you are below your set temperature or if you have reached it. A malfunctioning thermistor without proper safety software built in can be very dangerous.

Travel: This refers to when your printer is moving between parts of your print and is not actively extruding/printing.

Volumetric Speed: The maximum volume of material that the printer can extrude per unit of time, considering nozzle diameter and layer height.

What is FDM 3D Printing?

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is the most widely used form of 3D printing in households around the world. This process involves extruding melted thermoplastic material layer by layer, allowing each layer to cool and solidify before the next one is added.

FDM is an additive manufacturing method, opposite to subtractive processes like CNC milling. Instead of cutting away from a solid block, FDM uses only the material needed for the part itself, with the exception of support structures used for overhangs. These supports are removed and discarded after printing.

The uniqueness of FDM printing primarily lies in three key areas: the material used, the slicing software that converts 3D models into G-code instructions, and the extrusion system. Other components like motors and control boards are not exclusive to FDM and are common across many digital fabrication methods.

Advantages of FDM Printing

FDM printing is considered one of the most affordable and accessible methods of 3D printing. Compared to other technologies, such as SLA or resin printing, both the machines and materials are more cost-effective. While resin printer prices have dropped in recent years, they generally offer smaller build volumes and involve more expensive consumables, and are generally less user friendly.

The material variety available for FDM is extensive. Options include flexible filaments, carbon fiber blends, nylon, polycarbonate, UV-resistant, and weather-resistant materials. Many high-temperature materials are also available, though they often require enclosed and actively heated environments. With hundreds of filament types on the market—each offering unique characteristics like strength, flexibility, and thermal resistance—it is possible to find a material suited to nearly any application, provided the printer is equipped with a compatible extruder and hotend.

Compared to resin-based printing processes, FDM is also much cleaner and easier to use. It avoids handling of toxic chemicals and typically involves less post-processing. This makes FDM a more beginner-friendly option and better suited for casual or home use.

Understanding Axis Movement in FDM Printing

In FDM 3D printing, axis orientation may be unfamiliar to those with a background in geometry or general mechanics. The X-axis moves the tool left to right, the Y-axis moves it forward and backward, and the Z-axis controls vertical movement. Though it may seem counterintuitive, this naming convention is standard within the 3D printing community.

The most common axis configurations are based on Cartesian and CoreXY designs. Cartesian printers operate with each axis independently controlled by its own stepper motor. Typically, the build plate moves in the Y direction, while the hotend moves in the X direction. The entire carriage moves in the Z direction. These printers are often referred to as “bed slingers.”

Some machines, such as the Ender 5 series, use Cartesian-style motor movement but have a vertically moving build plate. These are often grouped with “gantry-style” printers for simplicity. In general, printers where the bed moves vertically in the Z-axis are considered gantry-style, while those where the bed moves forward and backward in the Y-axis are considered Cartesian-style or more colloquially as "bed slingers".

CoreXY machines differ in that the X and Y axes are synchronized through a belt system driven by two stepper motors. This allows for smoother motion, reduced Z-wobble, and improved stability—especially during faster printing. CoreXY printers are gaining popularity due to these benefits and are now found in models like the Bambu Lab X1 and P1 series.

Printers such as the A1 and A1 Mini continue to use Cartesian-style configurations and are known as "bed slingers".

Delta printers operate on an entirely different principle, using three arms arranged in a triangle to position the extruder above the print bed. While they can offer high-speed printing and excellent quality, they require taller frames and are less compact than Cartesian or CoreXY alternatives. These machines are far less commonly used due to space and setup requirements, but they are capable of excellent results.

Extruder Types: Direct vs. Bowden

FDM printers use one of two extruder types: direct drive or Bowden. A direct drive extruder feeds filament directly into the hotend from a motor mounted on the print head. In contrast, a Bowden extruder uses a remote motor to push filament through a PTFE tube to the hotend.

Bowden systems reduce the weight of the print head, allowing for faster movement. However, they can struggle with materials like TPU (flexible filament) and often require precise tuning of retraction settings to avoid stringing. Direct extruders offer better precision, easier use with flexible materials, and generally improved extrusion control.

Recent industry advances, such as vibration compensation, have made the weight disadvantage of direct drive systems less significant. As a result, more manufacturers are now offering affordable models with direct drive setups, and Bowden configurations are becoming less common.

Read more about Extruders.

This glycol-modified version of PET plastic combines the best traits of its counterparts, offering ease of use and versatility. Whether you’re crafting functional prototypes or parts requiring chemical resistance, PETG is a filament worth mastering. Let’s explore what makes it a favorite among makers and professionals alike.

What Is PETG?

PETG is a thermoplastic derived from PET (the same plastic used in water bottles), modified with glycol to enhance flexibility and reduce brittleness. This adjustment makes it more suitable for 3D printing, as it improves layer adhesion and reduces shrinkage during cooling. PETG’s unique blend of properties bridges the gap between PLA’s user-friendliness and ABS’s higher heat resistance, making it ideal for projects that demand both slightly higher heat resistance, chemical resistance, and practicality.

Printing with PETG: Tips and Techniques

Printing with PETG is straightforward but requires attention to detail. Unlike PLA, which thrives with minimal setup, PETG benefits from precise temperature control. A nozzle temperature between 220–260°C and a heated bed at 70–85°C ensure optimal layer bonding. While PETG doesn’t warp as aggressively as ABS, a heated bed is still recommended to prevent lifting.

Adhesion can be tricky: too little, and prints detach; too much, and they fuse to the bed. Solutions like glue sticks, painter’s tape, or PEI sheets strike the right balance. PETG’s tendency to ooze and string demands careful retraction settings—1–2 mm at 20–30 mm/s—to keep surfaces clean. Faster travel times to prevent oozing is recommended. A silicone nozzle sock helps prevent filament buildup, while slower first-layer speeds (20–30 mm/s) improve bed adhesion.

Advantages of PETG

PETG’s popularity stems from its well-rounded strengths.

Chemical resistance is a standout feature. PETG withstands exposure to acids, alkalis, oils, and UV light, making it ideal for outdoor applications like garden tools, automotive components, or UV-exposed signage. Some variants are even FDA-approved for food contact, though certifications should always be verified for safety.

Transparency adds to PETG’s appeal. Unlike many opaque filaments, it retains a glass-like clarity when printed slowly, perfect for light diffusers, vases, or display models. Combined with low warping and excellent layer adhesion, PETG is a forgiving material for both beginners and experts.

Limitations of PETG

No material is perfect, and PETG has its quirks. Stringing and oozing are common challenges, requiring meticulous retraction tuning and travel speed adjustments. Post-processing options are limited compared to ABS, as PETG can’t be smoothed with acetone.

PETG is also generally not impact resistant - meaning it can shatter when dropped - depending on the manufacturer's formula.

PETG vs. Other Filaments

PETG occupies a unique niche in the 3D printing ecosystem. It outperforms PLA in heat resistance (withstanding up to 80°C) but lacks ABS’s higher temperature tolerance (100–110°C) and lacks high impact resistance. Unlike TPU, PETG isn’t flexible but offers greater rigidity for structural parts. Its chemical resistance surpasses both PLA and ABS, while its transparency rivals specialized filaments like clear ABS.

Applications of PETG

PETG’s versatility shines across industries. Hobbyists use it for durable phone cases, tool handles, and cosplay props. Engineers rely on it for functional prototypes, mechanical parts, and robotics components. In food-related applications, PETG’s potential for food safety (when final print is certified) suits it for kitchen utensils or storage containers.

Requirements to Print PETG

There should be no specific requirements to print PETG outside of a heated build plate unless using a special blend of it which should be noted by the manufacturer. If you want to print PEG above 240°C - then you will need an all-metal hotend.

The image below is a printer in a Cartesian setup, where the build plate moves back and forth in the Y direction and the hotend left and right in the X direction – similar to the popular Bambu Lab A1, Creality Ender 3, and Prusa MK4 printers.

1. Z Carriage: This connects to both the Z rod and threaded rod/leadscrew. The leadscrew then turns due to the stepper motor it is attached to, which then moves the x carriage up and down. On Bowden machines this is often where the extruder is attached.

2. X Endstop: This is what tells the hotend to stop when homing. There is also a Y and Z endstop not shown in this picture which have the same function (though a Z endstop may be replaced by an auto bed leveler).

3. Build plate: This can be either glass, PEI, or another form of build plate. This is where the prints stick to.

4. Nozzle: Filament is fed through a heated nozzle in order to form your print. These can be found with different diameter holes, with the smaller the hole, the finer the detail. Nozzles range from 0.15mm – 1.2mm in diameter (sometimes thicker with hotends such as the SuperVolcano). They also come in brass, hardened steel, and ruby tip, with each becoming more abrasive resistant and more expensive.

5. X Carriage: This is where the hotend (and printers with direct extruders) attach to. The X carriage is attached to the X rods and belt which then in turn move the hotend in the X direction. This carriage should be very secured and not have any rattling.

6. Extruder: This is how the filament is fed into the nozzle. In this example we are showing a non-geared direct extruder. A geared extruder will have a gear-ratio allowing for less stress to be placed on the stepper motor, adding a mechanical advantage for more torque, allowing the filament to be fed faster. The extruder includes a tooth drive attached to the stepper motor that pinches the filament against a bearing that freely spins. There are dual drive extruders as well which replace this bearing with another tooth drive. This extruder can also be placed on the Z carriage in a Bowden fashion.

7. Extruder Stepper Motor: The extruder stepper is what turns and feeds filament through the extruder. This would be placed on the Z carriage when on a Bowden setup. This is what you are controlling when you set the E-Steps. When using a geared-extruder, you put less strain on this stepper motor by giving it a mechanical advantage, which would result in less extruder motor skips and a higher E-Step value. It would be smart to place a heat sink on this in order to disperse heat if you built your printer. This added weight when setup in a direct fashion can be one reason someone would prefer Bowden.

8. X Carriage Belt: This is what is connected to the X carriage as to move it left and right in the X direction via a stepper motor. This belt should be tight/springy to the touch as to reduce Z-wobble.

9. Y Stepper Motor: This stepper motor moves the bed back and forth in the Y direction by controlling the Y carriage belt. This is only present in this fashion on Cartesian machines. Remember on CoreXY setups, there is no “Y stepper Motor” as each motor moves both the X and Y axis dependent on one another.

10. Y Carriage Belt: This is the belt that is connected to the build plate and is controlled by the Y stepper motor and spins freely attached to a bearing on the other side. Just as with the X carriage belt, this should be tight and springy to the touch.

11. Y Smooth Rods: These rods are what the Y carriage are attached to via bearings and are smooth to the touch. They help to make sure the build plate moves smoothly back and forth without rattling. These rods should be lubricated with white lithium grease so that the build plate can move without resistance. These can be replaced with a rail system or aluminum extrusion with rollers instead on particular machines.

12. Active Cooling Fan: This fan is used to cool prints as layers are being laid down. This is crucial to use to get clean prints with particular materials, including PLA. This can lead to decreased layer adhesion on other particular materials, so you need to confirm the material you are using before turning it on in your slicer settings.

13. Z Stepper Motor: On some machines there is only one Z stepper motor, but there are dual steppers in this example. This stepper motor turns the Z leadscrew (or thin threaded rod) and moves the X and Z Carriage up and down, via where it is connected to the Z carriage (1 in photo). This is different on CoreXY machines, since those move the build plate up and down instead of the hotend.

14. Heaterblock of Hotend: This is the part of the hotend that gets hot and is attached to the heater. This is attached to the nozzle below it, and the barrel above it (with a heatbreak in between). The barrel should always have a fan blowing on it to prevent heat creep, though one is not shown in this picture.

15. X Smooth Rods: These rods are what the X carriage via bearings and are smooth to the touch. They help to make sure the hotend move smoothly left and right without rattling. These rods should be lubricated with white lithium grease so that the carriage can move without resistance. These can be replaced with a rail system or aluminum extrusion with rollers on particular machines.

16. Z Smooth Rods: There may only be one of these on your machine, but in the photo above, there are two Z smooth rods. These are what your Z carriage is attached via bearings to in order to ensure the Z carriages are moved up and down smoothly without rattling. They should remain lubricated just like the X and Y smooth rods as to ensure there is as little friction with the bearings as possible. These can also be replaced with a rail system or aluminum extrusion with rollers on particular machines.

17. Z Leadscrew (or threaded rod): These are threaded rods ranging from 5mm-10mm in diameter, with 8mm seeming to be the most common. Many machines only have one of these, but I have found when there are dual leadscrews you get more consistent results. These are turned via the Z stepper motors which then thread into the Z carriages – moving the Z and X carriages up and down. These have essentially the same function for the Z carriages as the belts have for the X and Y carriage. They are threaded rods though because more weight is placed on these parts, and less frequent moving is required out of the Z direction. In general, the thicker these leadscrews are, the better. Thin 5mm threaded rods can become bent and do not last long on 3D printers.

PET for 3D Printing: Balancing Clarity, Strength, and Sustainability

Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) is a widely recognized thermoplastic, best known for its use in water bottles and food packaging. In 3D printing, PET offers a unique blend of transparency, chemical resistance, and recyclability, making it an eco-friendly alternative to traditional filaments like PLA and ABS. While not as common as its glycol-modified counterpart PETG, PET is gaining traction for specialized applications where rigidity and sustainability are priorities.

What Is PET?

PET is a lightweight, semi-rigid thermoplastic prized for its clarity, strength, and recyclability. Unlike PETG, which incorporates glycol to improve flexibility, pure PET retains a higher density and rigidity, resulting in parts with enhanced mechanical properties. Its amorphous structure minimizes warping, while its low moisture absorption (compared to PETG) reduces the need for extensive drying.

Printing with PET: Key Considerations

PET’s printing behavior balances accessibility and technical nuance. While easier to handle than ABS, it demands careful temperature control to optimize results.

Optimal Settings

• Nozzle Temperature: 230–245°C (higher than PLA but lower than PETG).

• Bed Temperature: 80–90°C (heated bed required for adhesion).

• Cooling Fan: 10–25% to maintain detail without compromising layer bonding.

• Retraction: 1–2 mm at 20–30 mm/s to minimize stringing.

Adhesion Tips

PET adheres well to PEI sheets, glass beds, or painter’s tape. Glue sticks or adhesives can further enhance bed grip.

Challenges

• Warping: Though less prone than ABS, PET may warp on large prints without a heated bed.

• Stringing: PET’s viscosity requires precise retraction tuning to avoid oozing.

• Moisture Sensitivity: While less hygroscopic than PETG, PET still benefits from dry storage to prevent print defects.

Advantages of PET

1. Strength and Rigidity: PET is denser and harder than PETG, offering superior mechanical strength for functional parts like gears or enclosures.

2. Transparency: Maintains glass-like clarity when printed slowly, ideal for display models or light diffusers.

3. Chemical Resistance: Withstands exposure to oils, acids, and alkalis, suitable for industrial or automotive components.

4. Sustainability: Recyclable and often available in recycled variants, reducing environmental impact.

5. Low Warping: Amorphous structure minimizes shrinkage, enabling large, detailed prints without an enclosure.

Limitations of PET

1. Brittleness: Pure PET is more brittle than PETG, limiting its use in high-impact applications.

2. Heat Resistance: Moderate heat tolerance (~70–80°C) makes it unsuitable for high-temperature environments.

3. Post-Processing: Cannot be smoothed with acetone, limiting aesthetic customization.

4. Printing Nuance: Requires precise temperature control to balance adhesion and surface quality.

PET vs. PETG: A Comparative Overview

Applications of PET in 3D Printing

• Industrial Components: Durable housings, jigs, and fixtures requiring chemical resistance.

• Consumer Goods: Transparent containers, display stands, or household appliances.

• Electronics: Insulating casings for devices exposed to oils or solvents.

• Sustainable Manufacturing: Recycled PET filaments for eco-conscious prototyping.

Requirements to Print PETG

There should be no specific requirements to print PETG outside of a heated build plate unless using a special blend of it which should be noted by the manufacturer. If you want to print PEG above 240°C - then you will need an all-metal hotend.

Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS) is a high-performance engineering thermoplastic renowned for its exceptional thermal stability, chemical resistance, and mechanical strength. Often used in demanding industries like aerospace, automotive, and electronics, PPS bridges the gap between conventional polymers and advanced composites, making it ideal for functional parts exposed to extreme conditions.

What Is PPS?

PPS is a semi-crystalline polymer with a high degree of purity (up to 65%) and thermal stability. Its molecular structure—composed of benzene rings linked by sulfur atoms—confers rigidity, flame retardancy, and resistance to degradation. Key characteristics include:

• Thermal Stability: Melting point of 280–290°C, with decomposition above 430–460°C in air. Sustains long-term use at 200–220°C and short-term exposure up to 260°C1.

• Chemical Resistance: Withstands acids, alkalis, solvents, and fuels, outperforming materials like PA (nylon) and POM1.

• Dimensional Stability: Low molding shrinkage (0.15–0.3%) and minimal water absorption (0.05%)1.

Printing with PPS: Challenges and Solutions

PPS demands specialized equipment and precise calibration to harness its properties effectively.

Hardware Requirements

• Nozzle: All-metal hotend capable of 300–350°C to handle PPS’s high melting point.

• Bed Temperature: Heated bed at 120–140°C for adhesion (PEI or adhesive-coated surfaces preferred).

• Enclosure: Maintains ambient temperatures above 70°C to minimize warping and cracking.

Optimal Settings

• Nozzle Temperature: 300–330°C (varies by composite additives).

• Print Speed: 30–50 mm/s to ensure layer adhesion.

• Retraction: 1–2 mm at 20–30 mm/s to reduce stringing.

• Cooling Fan: Disabled or minimal (0–10%) to prevent rapid cooling.

Material Preparation

• Drying: Preheat filament at 120°C for 4–6 hours to eliminate moisture.

• Storage: Keep in airtight containers with desiccant to prevent rehydration.

Common Challenges

• Warping: Mitigated by enclosed printers, high bed temperatures, and brims/rafts.

• Layer Adhesion: Higher nozzle temperatures and slower speeds improve bonding.

• Abrasive Composites: Carbon fiber-reinforced PPS (e.g., PPS-CF10) requires hardened steel or ruby nozzles. Not required for non-reinforced blends.

Advantages of PPS

1. Thermal Performance: Outperforms PA, PBT, and PTFE in heat resistance, suitable for under-hood automotive parts or aerospace components1.

2. Mechanical Strength: Tensile strength of 90 MPa and Young’s modulus of 3700 MPa, rivaling PEEK in rigidity.

3. Flame Retardancy: Meets UL94V-0 standards, ideal for electrical enclosures.

4. Chemical Durability: Resists degradation from oils, fuels, and industrial solvents.

5. Dimensional Precision: Low shrinkage ensures accurate prints for tight-tolerance components.

Limitations of PPS

1. Print Complexity: Requires high-temperature printers and enclosed chambers.

2. Cost: More expensive than PA, ABS, or PETG.

3. Brittleness: Lower impact strength compared to PA6 or PA12 (28 kJ/m² Charpy impact).

4. Post-Processing: Limited smoothing options; machining or vapor polishing may be needed.

5. Annealing: PPS needs to be annealed in order to get to its full strength and heat resistant properties

PPS vs. PEEK: A Comparative Overview

Applications of PPS

• Aerospace: Brackets, ducting, and engine bay components requiring heat and chemical resistance.

• Automotive: Fuel system parts, sensors, and under-hood mounts.

• Electronics: Connectors, insulators, and flame-retardant housings.

• Industrial: Pump components, seals, and chemical-resistant valves.

• Medical: Sterilization trays and non-implantable devices.

Reinforced PPS Variants

1. PPS-CF (Carbon Fiber): Enhances stiffness and thermal conductivity (e.g., Polymaker PPS-CF10).

2. PPS-GF (Glass Fiber): Improves dimensional stability for precision components.

3. PPS-HT: High-temperature variants for extreme environments.

Polypropylene (PP) has carved a niche in 3D printing as a lightweight, fatigue-resistant thermoplastic ideal for functional prototypes and end-use parts. Known for its presence in household items like storage containers and automotive components, PP combines flexibility, chemical resistance, and durability, making it a standout choice for applications requiring repeated stress or exposure to harsh environments.

What Is Polypropylene?

Polypropylene is a semi-crystalline thermoplastic prized for its balance of rigidity and flexibility. Its hydrophobic nature, low density, and resistance to fatigue make it a go-to material for living hinges, snap-fit components, and lightweight parts. Key characteristics include:

• Chemical Resistance: Withstands acids, alkalis, and solvents, ideal for medical and automotive uses.

• Fatigue Resistance: Endures repeated bending without cracking (e.g., bottle caps, hinges).

• Low Density: Lightweight yet durable, suitable for weight-sensitive industries like aerospace.

• Water Repellency: Hydrophobic properties prevent moisture absorption, reducing post-print drying needs.

Printing with Polypropylene: Strategies for Success

PP’s semi-crystalline structure and warping tendencies demand precise temperature control and adhesion strategies.

Optimal Settings

• Nozzle Temperature: 210–280°C (varies by formulation; pure PP: 210–230°C, composites: 250–280°C).

• Bed Temperature: 50–80°C (heated bed critical for adhesion).

• Print Speed: 30–50 mm/s (slower speeds enhance layer bonding).

• Adhesion Solutions: Magigoo PP adhesive, PEI sheets, or painter’s tape with glue stick. Attaching cardboard to your printer build plate can help for very stubborn PP prints.

• Enclosure: Recommended for ambient temperatures below 70°C to prevent warping and cracking.

Material Preparation

• Drying: Preheat filament at 70°C for 4–6 hours to minimize moisture-related defects.

• Storage: Keep in airtight containers with desiccant to maintain print quality.

Common Challenges

• Warping: Mitigated by enclosed printers, brims (25–35mm), or rafts for large prints.

• Layer Adhesion: Higher nozzle temperatures (up to 280°C for composites) improve bonding.

• Stringing: Fine-tune retraction (1–2 mm at 20–30 mm/s) to reduce oozing.

Advantages of Polypropylene

1. Fatigue Resistance: Excels in applications with repetitive motion (e.g., living hinges, snap-fit assemblies).

2. Chemical Durability: Resists degradation from oils, fuels, and cleaning agents.

3. Lightweight: Low density (0.9 g/cm³) reduces part weight without sacrificing strength.

4. Hydrophobicity: Minimal moisture absorption compared to nylon or PETG.

5. Cost-Effective: Affordable alternative to high-performance polymers like PEI or PEEK.

Limitations of Polypropylene

1. Warping: Prone to shrinkage without heated enclosures or stable ambient temperatures.

2. Surface Finish: Smooth but may require post-processing (e.g., vapor polishing) for high-gloss aesthetics.

3. Print Complexity: Demands precise temperature control and adhesion solutions.

4. Limited Food Safety: Unsuitable for culinary applications without certification.

Applications of Polypropylene

• Automotive: Bumpers, interior trim, and fluid reservoirs.

• Medical: Sterilization trays, IV components, and non-implantable devices.

• Consumer Goods: Hinged containers, toys, and household fixtures.

• Industrial: Chemical-resistant piping, conveyor components, and snap-fit jigs.

• Aerospace: Lightweight ducting and non-structural cabin components.

Polypropylene Variants

1. Pure PP (SLS): Natural white with high chemical resistance (e.g., Protolabs’ Polypropylene Natural).

2. PP-Like Resins: Translucent SLA materials (e.g., Somos 9120) mimicking PP’s flexibility.

3. Carbon FPU 50: Ultra-flexible resin with 200% elongation for functional prototypes.

Nylon (Polyamide, or PA) stands as one of the most versatile engineering-grade materials in 3D printing, prized for its exceptional strength, flexibility, and resistance to wear. Widely used in industries ranging from aerospace to healthcare, nylon bridges the gap between rigid plastics and elastic polymers, enabling functional parts that endure stress, heat, and harsh environments.

What Is Nylon (PA)?

Nylon is a synthetic thermoplastic polyamide known for its semicrystalline structure, which balances rigidity and toughness. This material family includes variants like PA6, PA11, PA12, and glass- or carbon-reinforced composites, each tailored for specific applications. Key characteristics include:

• High Tensile Strength: Withstands mechanical stress and repeated loading.

• Impact Resistance: Absorbs shocks without fracturing, ideal for dynamic parts.

• Thermal Stability: Operates continuously at temperatures up to 120°C (higher for reinforced grades).

• Low Friction Coefficient: Reduces wear in moving parts like gears and bearings.

Printing with Nylon: Challenges and Solutions

Nylon’s hygroscopic nature and warping tendencies demand careful handling, but optimized settings yield reliable results.

Optimal Settings

• Nozzle Temperature: 220–260°C (varies by grade; PA12 typically prints at 230–250°C).

• Bed Temperature: 70–100°C (heated bed critical for adhesion). Not needed for Polymaker's Warp Free™ Nylons.

• Print Speed: 30–60 mm/s (slower speeds enhance layer bonding).

• Enclosure: Required for open-frame printers to minimize warping and drafts. Not needed for Polymaker's Warp Free™ Nylons.

Material Preparation

• Drying: Preheat filament at 50–70°C for 6–8 hours to remove absorbed moisture. Should be kept in dryer entire time being printed.

• Storage: Keep in airtight containers with desiccant to prevent rehydration.

Adhesion and Warping

• Build Plate: Use PEI sheets, Magigoo, or adhesives like a glue stick will help.

• Enclosed Environment: Maintains stable ambient temperatures, reducing warping. Not needed for Polymaker's Warp Free™ Nylons.

Advantages of Nylon

1. Strength and Flexibility: Combines high tensile strength (up to 80 MPa) with elongation at break (15–30%), enabling durable, snap-fit components.

2. Thermal and Chemical Resistance: Withstands oils, fuels, and alkalis, suitable for automotive and industrial applications.

3. Abrasion Resistance: Ideal for gears, bearings, and sliding parts due to low friction.

4. Biocompatibility: Medical-grade variants support prosthetics, orthotics, and surgical guides.

5. Composite Options: Carbon fiber (CF) or glass fiber (GF) reinforcement enhances stiffness, heat deflection, and dimensional stability.

Limitations of Nylon

1. Hygroscopic Behavior: Absorbs moisture rapidly, requiring diligent drying and storage. parts can also absorb moisture after printing - meaning dimensions may change slightly.

2. Warping: Prone to shrinkage without an enclosed printer or heated chamber when not using Polymaker's nylon options.

3. Abrasive Composites: Carbon- or glass-filled variants wear nozzles quickly; use hardened steel or ruby tips.

4. Post-Processing Complexity: Difficult to sand or smooth; machining or tumbling may be needed.

Applications of Nylon in 3D Printing

• Aerospace: Flight-grade brackets, ducting, and drone components (using glass-reinforced PA6-GF30).

• Automotive: Fuel lines, under-hood mounts, and custom gaskets.

• Industrial: Jigs, fixtures, conveyor belts, and wear-resistant gears.

• Healthcare: Prosthetic sockets, surgical guides, and biocompatible implants.

• Consumer Goods: Durable phone cases, snap-fit enclosures, and high-stress toys.

Requirements to Print Nylon

This can vary drastically depending on the type of nylon and the manufacturer requirements. Generally speaking though - you should have:

• A filament dryer and way to keep filament dry while not in use.

• All-metal hotend for any nylon requiring over 240°C

• Annealing post-printing for best strength and heat resistance possible.

What Is a Slicer in FDM 3D Printing?

A slicer is specialized software that converts 3D models into printable instructions (G-code) for FDM printers. It "slices" digital designs into horizontal layers, calculates toolpaths, and defines parameters like print speed, temperature, and material flow. Slicers enable precise control over print quality, material efficiency, and structural integrity.

How Slicers Work

1. Model Import: Accepts 3D files (STL, OBJ, STEP, etc.) to define geometry.

2. Layer Segmentation: Divides the model into layers based on user-defined layer heights (e.g., 0.1mm–0.3mm).

3. Toolpath Generation: Maps extruder movements, including infill patterns, supports, and adhesion aids.

4. Parameter Configuration: Adjusts nozzle temperature, retraction, cooling, and material-specific settings.

5. G-Code Export: Generates machine-readable instructions for the printer.

Key features include infill density optimization, support structure generation, and print speed adjustments for balancing quality and efficiency.

This issue is one of the easiest to diagnose but also among the most frustrating when it occurs. It is possible to assume there is enough filament for a 400-gram print, only to run out of material 20 hours in, with just a few layers remaining.

To prevent this problem, consider the following precautions:

Weigh the Empty Spool Record the weight in grams of an empty spool from the filament manufacturer in use. While there may be some variation, this provides a reliable starting point. Weigh the spool intended for the next print, subtract the weight of the empty spool, and estimate the remaining filament. Allow for a buffer of at least 20 grams to account for spool tolerances.

Pause at Layer Height When starting a print with a spool that does not have enough filament to complete the job, add a "Pause at Layer Height" command in the slicing software. In Cura, navigate to "Extensions" > "Post-Processing" > "Modify G-Code," then add the "Pause at Height" script. Select the desired layer or height for the printer to pause, enabling a spool change. This feature is especially useful for large prints or when a full spool is not available. It can also be used to switch filament colors partway through a print.

Understand Material Density Slicing programs often estimate material usage in grams, but this may be inaccurate if the material differs from the default machine settings. For example, estimates are often based on the density of PLA. If the estimate is given in meters, a simple calculation can convert this to grams for the specific material.

PolyLite PLA is 1.19 grams per cubic cm. If you were using 1.75mm diameter filament, one meter of filament would be 2.41 cubic cm in volume.

1 meter of PLA 1.75mm filament would then be equal to 2.41 x 1.19, or 2.8679 grams. A 1,000 gram spool of PLA should be roughly 348.7 meters.

Using that 2.41 cubic cm in volume for 1.75 filament, you can use the data below to figure out how many grams of material your print expects to use.

These numbers are for Polymaker and will vary depending on the manufacturer:

• PolyLite PLA: 1.19 g/ccm – 2.87 grams per meter (1.75mm filament). 1KG = 348.7 meters.

• PolyLite ABS: 1.12 g/ccm – 2.7 grams per meter (1.75mm filament). 1KG = 370.37 meters

• PolyLite PET: 1.25 g/ccm – 3.01 grams per meter (1.75mm filament). 1KG = 332.23 meters

• CoPA Nylon: 1.12 g/ccm – 2.7 grams per meter (1.75mm filament). 1KG = 370.37 meters

For 2.85mm filament, use 6.38 cubic centimeters as the volume per meter.

To Summarize:

1.75 mm filament = 2.41 cubic CM in volume for 1 meter of filament. 2.41 x density = grams of filament in 1 meter of filament. Spool weight/grams of filament in 1 meter of filament = length of filament in meters

NOTE: All manufacturers have different specific densities for their materials. This means you should always use the manufacturers density in your slicer to get a proper estimation.

Use a Filament Runout Sensor Many 3D printers now include a filament runout sensor, or one can be added with some firmware adjustments. These sensors are inexpensive and will pause the print when filament is no longer detected. This allows for a spool change and resumption of the print, reducing the risk of failed prints due to filament depletion.

Summary of Fixes and Precautions

• Weigh the spool before starting a print.

• Add a pause at a specific layer height to allow for filament changes if the spool is low.

• Calculate estimated filament requirements based on the density of the material in use.

• Utilize a filament runout sensor to automatically pause prints when filament runs out.

3D Gloop

Specialized adhesives formulated for 3D printing materials include PLA Gloop, ABS/ASA Gloop, and PET Gloop, addressing bonding challenges unique to printed components. These products enable molecular-level adhesion by partially dissolving the plastic surface to create seamless welds. While the bottle design may limit access to tight spaces, PLA Gloop demonstrates reliable performance, and PET Gloop proves particularly effective for PET/PETG—materials traditionally difficult to bond. Widely endorsed within the 3D printing community, these adhesives also enhance bed adhesion and surface smoothing when applied sparingly to print surfaces.

Loctite/Gorilla Glue Super Glue Gel

Loctite Super Glue Gel and Gorilla Glue Super Glue Gel remain popular choices for bonding rigid plastics like PLA and ABS. Loctite’s gel formula allows precise application, dries transparent in under a minute, and resists accidental spills. However, residual glue often remains trapped in the bottle’s hard plastic casing, requiring extraction for full utilization. While effective for small or unclampable parts, these adhesives are unsuitable for nylon and may fail under prolonged stress.

Devcon Plastic Welder

Devcon Plastic Welder, a two-part epoxy, creates bonds stronger than the layer adhesion of many printed materials. Suitable for high-stress applications, it requires mixing and curing for 10 minutes (initial hold) and 24 hours (full strength). Though occasional inconsistencies in component flow may occur—potentially due to age or storage conditions—it remains a robust alternative to 3D Gloop for clamped assemblies.

J-B Weld

J-B Weld excels in hybrid bonding, such as adhering plastic components to metal. Its steel-reinforced epoxy forms near-permanent bonds, often necessitating destructive methods (e.g., grinding or melting) for separation. Popular in functional applications like 3D-printed firearms, it cures fully within 12–24 hours and withstands extreme mechanical stress.

Material-Specific Recommendations

• PLA/ABS/PETG: Prioritize 3D Gloop for seamless welds; use super glue gels for quick repairs.

• Nylon: Avoid adhesives—opt for mechanical fasteners (screws, clips) due to poor bonding performance.

• Metal-Plastic Hybrids: J-B Weld ensures durable, load-bearing joints.

Note: Surface preparation (sanding, cleaning) is critical for all adhesives. Test compatibility with coated build plates before full application.

Acrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate (ASA) has emerged as a superior alternative to ABS in 3D printing, combining durability with exceptional resistance to weathering. Known for its ability to withstand UV exposure, heat, and harsh environments, ASA is the go-to filament for functional parts that thrive outdoors. From automotive components to garden fixtures, ASA bridges the gap between industrial-grade performance and practical printability.

What Is ASA?

ASA is a thermoplastic polymer engineered to excel in outdoor and high-stress environments. Its composition—acrylonitrile for chemical resistance, styrene for rigidity, and acrylate for UV stability—makes it a robust alternative to ABS. Unlike ABS, ASA retains its color and mechanical properties even after prolonged sun exposure, thanks to its UV-resistant acrylic ester elastomer.

Printing with ASA: Precision and Preparation

ASA demands careful calibration to balance adhesion, warping, and layer bonding. Here’s how to optimize your prints:

Key Settings

• Nozzle Temperature: 240–280°C (start at 250°C and adjust based on filament brand).

• Bed Temperature: 90–110°C (heated bed essential for adhesion).

• Print Speed: 35–70 mm/s (slower speeds improve layer bonding).

• Ambient Temperature: Maintain a draft-free, warm environment or use an enclosed printer (60°C chamber ideal).

Adhesion and Warping

• Build Plate: Use PEI sheets, BuildTak, or adhesion items such as Magigoo Original for reliable first-layer grip.

• Enclosure (or warm ambient air): Critical for minimizing warping and cracking, especially in large prints.

• Cooling: Reduce or disable part cooling fans to prevent rapid cooling and warping.

Challenges

• Fumes: ASA emits VOCs during printing; ensure proper ventilation or air filtration.

• Moisture Sensitivity: Store filament in a dry, sealed container to prevent moisture absorption.

• Stringing: Fine-tune retraction (1–2 mm at 20–30 mm/s) to minimize oozing.

Advantages of ASA

1. UV Resistance: Retains color and strength under prolonged sun exposure, ideal for outdoor signs, automotive trim, and patio fixtures.

2. Thermal Stability: Heat deflection temperature of 86–96°C (1.8 MPa) outperforms PLA and rivals ABS.

3. Mechanical Strength: Tensile strength of 47.1 MPa and impact resistance of 180 J/m (notched) ensure durability in high-stress applications.

4. Chemical Resistance: Withstands oils, acids, and alkalis, suitable for industrial or automotive parts.

5. Post-Processing: Smoothable with acetone vapor for a polished finish, though should be taken with extreme caution due to the flammability of acetone.

Limitations of ASA

1. Print Complexity: Requires warm ambient air, heated bed, and precise temperature control.

2. Fume Management: Strong odor during printing necessitates ventilation.

3. Not Food-Safe: Unsuitable for kitchenware or medical applications.

4. Material Sensitivity: Prone to warping if printed in humid or drafty environments.

ASA vs. ABS: A Practical Comparison

Applications of ASA

• Automotive: Exterior trim, mirror housings, and under-hood components.

• Outdoor Fixtures: Garden tools, patio furniture, and UV-resistant signage.

• Industrial: Jigs, enclosures, and chemical-resistant parts.

• Consumer Goods: Durable phone cases, outdoor toys, and sporting equipment.

Requirements to Print ASA

• Enclosure or warm ambient air

• Not needed, but all-metal hotend is recommended if attempting to print above 240°C

Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) has long been a cornerstone of both industrial manufacturing and 3D printing. Known for its toughness, heat resistance, and versatility, ABS filament bridges the gap between everyday usability and engineering-grade performance. From LEGO bricks to automotive components, this material’s balance of strength and flexibility makes it a favorite for functional parts that demand durability and added heat resistance.

What Is ABS?

ABS is a thermoplastic polymer composed of acrylonitrile, butadiene, and styrene, combining rigidity, impact resistance, and thermal stability. Unlike PLA, which is derived from plant-based sources, ABS is petroleum-based, giving it higher heat tolerance and mechanical resilience. Its amorphous structure allows it to soften gradually when heated rather than melting abruptly, making it suitable for repeated thermal processing.

Printing with ABS: Key Considerations

ABS requires careful temperature management to avoid warping and layer separation. A nozzle temperature between 220–260°C is typical, though formulations with additives may demand adjustments (e.g., 240–280°C for specialized blends). A heated bed set to 90–110°C is critical to ensure proper adhesion and minimize shrinkage as the material cools. Enclosed printers are highly recommended to maintain ambient heat, reduce warping, and prevent drafts from destabilizing prints.

Adhesion Techniques

• Use PEI sheets, Magigoo adhesive, or painter’s tape on the build plate.

• Apply a glue stick or ABS slurry (ABS dissolved in acetone) for stubborn prints.

Common Challenges

• Warping: Caused by rapid cooling; an enclosed chamber mitigates this.

• Fumes: ABS emits volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during printing, necessitating ventilation or air filtration systems.

• Stringing: Fine-tune retraction settings (1–2 mm at 20–30 mm/s) to reduce oozing.

Advantages of ABS

1. Durability: ABS excels in impact resistance, outperforming PLA in toughness and longevity. It’s ideal for high-wear items like tool handles, automotive trim, and mechanical parts.

2. Heat Tolerance: With a glass transition temperature of ~100°C, ABS withstands higher temperatures than PLA, making it suitable for applications near heat sources.

3. Post-Processing Flexibility: ABS can be smoothed with acetone vapor for a polished finish, glued with solvents, or painted for aesthetic customization. Though this should only be done with extreme caution due to the high flammability of acetone.

Limitations of ABS

1. Printing Complexity: ABS demands precise temperature control and an enclosed printer (or warm ambient air) to prevent warping and cracking.

2. Fumes and Odor: The strong odor during printing requires a well-ventilated workspace or protective equipment.

3. Environmental Impact: ABS is not biodegradable, and improper disposal contributes to plastic waste.

4. Not Food Safe: Despite its versatility, ABS is unsuitable for food-related applications due to potential chemical leaching.

ABS vs. PLA: A Practical Comparison

Applications of ABS in 3D Printing

• Functional Prototypes: Mechanical parts, snap-fit assemblies, and load-bearing components.

• Automotive: Dashboard panels, bumpers, and trim pieces that endure heat and vibration.

• Industrial Tooling: Jigs, fixtures, and patterns for sand casting or thermoforming molds.

• Consumer Goods: Durable toys (e.g., LEGO), phone cases, and appliance housings.

• Electronics: Non-conductive enclosures for routers, power tools, and control panels.

Requirements to Print ABS

• Enclosure or warm ambient air.

• Not needed, but all-metal hotend is recommended if attempting to print above 240°C.

Thermoplastic Polyurethane (TPU) has revolutionized 3D printing with its unique blend of rubber-like flexibility and industrial-grade durability. Known for its shock absorption, chemical resistance, and stretchability, TPU is the go-to filament for functional parts that demand elasticity without sacrificing strength. From custom phone cases to automotive seals, TPU unlocks applications where rigidity fails.

What Is TPU?

TPU is a flexible thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) that combines the elasticity of rubber with the printability of plastic. Unlike rigid filaments, TPU can stretch up to 500% of its original length before breaking, making it ideal for bendable, impact-resistant components. Its durability against abrasion, oils, and low temperatures further cements its role in industrial and consumer applications.

How soft the TPU will be will depend on the Shore Hardness of the material being used as well as the infill % used for the model. A lower shore hardness = a softer material.

Printing with TPU: Techniques and Tips

TPU’s flexibility requires adjustments to standard printing workflows. While challenging for beginners, mastering its quirks yields unparalleled results.

Optimal Settings

• Nozzle Temperature: 210–250°C (varies by brand; start at 230°C).

• Bed Temperature: 40–60°C (heated bed improves adhesion).

• Print Speed: 15–40 mm/s (slower speeds prevent filament buckling. Particularly true for softer TPU options)

• Retraction: Minimal (1–2 mm at 10–20 mm/s) to avoid clogging.

• Layer Height: 0.2–0.3 mm for better layer adhesion.

Hardware Recommendations

• Extruder: Direct-drive systems outperform Bowden setups, reducing filament path friction.

• Build Plate: PEI sheets, painter’s tape, or adhesive-coated glass enhance first-layer grip.

• Cooling Fan: 20–50% to balance detail and layer bonding.

Common Challenges

• Stringing/Oozing: TPU’s elasticity causes fine hairs; reduce retraction and slow travel speeds.

• Moisture Sensitivity: Store filament in a dry box and pre-dry at 50°C for 24 hours to prevent bubbles.

• Bed Adhesion: Over-sticking can damage surfaces; use glue sticks as a release agent.

Advantages of TPU

1. Elasticity: Stretches up to 5x its length without breaking, ideal for seals, grips, and wearable tech.

2. Durability: Resists abrasion, oils, fuels, and impacts, outperforming rigid plastics in harsh environments.

3. Shock Absorption: Dampens vibrations for automotive mounts, prosthetics, and sporting gear.

4. Chemical Resistance: Withstands industrial solvents and UV exposure, suitable for outdoor use.

5. Custom Flexibility: Adjust infill density (10–20% for softness, 50–100% for rigidity) to tailor part performance.

Limitations of TPU

1. Print Complexity: Requires slow speeds, precise retraction, and moisture management. Support structures can often be very difficult to remove.

2. Post-Processing: Difficult to sand or smooth due to abrasion resistance; limited to trimming or tumbling.

3. Not Food Safe: Unsuitable for kitchenware without certification.

4. Hardware Demands: Bowden extruders may struggle; direct-drive systems are preferred.

TPU vs. Other Flexible Filaments

Applications of TPU

• Consumer Goods: Phone cases, watch straps, shoe soles, and custom grips.

• Automotive: Seals, gaskets, vibration-dampening mounts, and hose connectors.

• Industrial: Conveyor belts, drive components, and non-marring tool covers.

• Healthcare: Prosthetics, orthotic insoles, and flexible tubing.

• Aerospace: Shock-absorbing pads and protective housings.

Requirements to Print TPU

This can depend on the specific blend of TPU being used. Generally speaking though - when printing a soft version of TPU - a direct extruder will be required. Slower print speeds will also be required, and if printing above 240°C, an all-metal hotend is required.

The extruder is the core component of any FDM 3D printer, responsible for feeding, and depositing filament layer by layer. From lightweight Bowden systems to robust direct-drive setups, extruder design profoundly impacts print quality, material compatibility, and speed. Here’s a comprehensive guide to how extruders work, their key types, and critical maintenance practices.

How 3D Printer Extruders Work

The extruder’s primary function is to push filament into the hotend, where it melts and exits through the nozzle. This process involves:

1. Filament Feeding: A stepper motor drives gears to grip and advance the filament.

2. Melting: The hotend heats the filament to its melting point (e.g., 200°C for PLA) after being fed from the extruder.

3. Extrusion: Molten plastic is forced through the nozzle, depositing material onto the build plate.

4. Layer Bonding: A cooling fan solidifies the material, enabling layer adhesion.

Key components include the drive gear (pushes filament), idler (applies pressure), hotend (melts filament), and nozzle (shapes extruded material).

Extruder Types: Bowden vs. Direct Drive

1. Bowden Extruders

• Design: Stepper motor is mounted on the printer frame, with filament fed through a PTFE tube to the hotend.

• Advantages:

  • Reduced print head weight for faster speeds and reduced ghosting.

  • Great for rigid filaments like PLA and PETG.

• Limitations:

  • Poor flexibility handling (e.g., TPU clogs due to tube friction).

  • Higher retraction distances to prevent stringing.

2. Direct-Drive Extruders

• Design: Stepper motor is mounted directly on the print head, minimizing filament path length.

• Advantages:

  • Superior control for flexible filaments (TPU, TPE).

  • Lower retraction distances improve print clarity.

• Limitations:

  • Heavier print head limits maximum speed.

  • Requires robust frame design to handle inertia.

Advanced Extruder Designs and Features

Modern extruders enhance performance through specialized mechanisms:

• Dual-Gear Systems: Use synchronized gears for consistent grip, reducing filament slip.

• Orbital Gearboxes: Employ compact gear reductions for high torque in lightweight packages.

• High-Temperature Options: Integrate liquid cooling for nozzle temperatures up to 500°C, enabling PEEK and PEI printing.

• Abrasive Filament Handling: Hardened steel gears and nozzles are essential for carbon fiber or glass-filled composites.

Troubleshooting Common Extruder Issues

Under-Extrusion

• Causes: Clogged nozzle, insufficient extruder grip, or incorrect slicer settings.

• Solutions:

  • Clean nozzle and Bowden tube.

  • Increase nozzle temperature or flow rate.

  • Calibrate E-steps to ensure accurate filament feeding.

Filament Grinding

• Causes: Worn gears, excessive idler pressure, or incorrect filament diameter.

• Solutions:

  • Replace worn drive gears.

  • Adjust idler tension to balance grip and filament deformation.

Stringing/Oozing

• Causes: Excessive nozzle temperature or inadequate retraction.

• Solutions:

  • Optimize retraction distance (1–2 mm for direct drive; 4–6 mm for Bowden).

  • Enable coasting in slicer settings.

Maintenance Best Practices

• Regular Cleaning: Remove debris from gears and filament paths using brushes or compressed air.

• Lubrication: Apply minimal PTFE grease to gears to reduce friction.

• Filament Storage: Keep hygroscopic materials (nylon, PC) in dry boxes to prevent moisture absorption.

• Nozzle Checks: Inspect for wear when printing abrasives; replace brass nozzles with hardened variants as needed.

Choosing the Right Extruder

Polylactic Acid (PLA) is the gateway material for 3D printing enthusiasts, celebrated for its ease of use, affordability, and vibrant aesthetics. Derived from renewable resources like cornstarch or sugarcane leaving a sweet smell when printing, PLA has become a staple for hobbyists and professionals alike. While standard PLA is often dismissed as brittle and heat-sensitive, advanced formulations like PLA+ or PLA Pro and composite-enhanced variants challenge this perception, offering improved durability for functional applications.

What Is PLA?

PLA is a thermoplastic made from fermented plant sugars. Its low printing temperature, minimal warping, and color selection finish make it ideal for beginners. However, its mechanical properties—rigidity, brittleness, and low heat resistance—limit its use in high-stress applications.

Printing with PLA: Simplicity and Nuance

PLA’s user-friendly nature stems from its forgiving print settings:

• Nozzle Temperature: 190–230°C (lower than ABS or PETG).

• Bed Temperature: 40–60°C (heating optional but recommended).

• Cooling Fan: 100% cooling for sharp details.

Challenges

• Brittleness: Low impact resistance limits functional use when using basic PLA.

• Heat Vulnerability: Softens at temperatures above 60°C (e.g., in hot cars).

Stronger PLA Options: Beyond Standard Filament

While standard PLA excels in aesthetics, engineered variants address its weaknesses:

1. PLA+ (PLA Pro)

PLA+ or PLA Pro incorporates additives like plasticizers, impact modifiers, or nucleating agents to enhance performance:

• Impact Resistance: Much higher than standard PLA, rivaling ABS in toughness.

• Ease of Printing: Retains PLA’s low warping and ease of use.

2. Composite PLA

Reinforced with fibers or particles for specialized applications:

• Carbon Fiber PLA: Boosts stiffness and tensile strength

• Wood/Metal PLA: Adds cosmetic appeal without significant strength gains.

• Graphene PLA: Improves thermal conductivity and rigidity.

• Flexible PLA: Adds flexibility.

3. Tough PLA

Hybrid materials like Tough PLA (e.g., PolyMax™ Tough PLA) bridge the gap between PLA and ABS, offering:

• Higher Impact Strength: Suitable for snap-fit parts and functional prototypes. Often has very high impact resistance.

• More Ductile: Will often not be as rigid as standard PLA and will bend before breaking.

• Retained Printability: Prints at standard PLA temperatures.

Pros and Cons of PLA

Advantages

• Beginner-Friendly: Minimal warping, no heated bed required.

• Aesthetic Versatility: Wide color range, glossy finish, and transparency options.

• Eco-Conscious: Biodegradable under industrial composting conditions.

• Cost-Effective: Affordable for prototyping and low-stress models.

Limitations

• Brittle: Prone to cracking under impact or stress for standard PLA.

• Low Heat Resistance: Unsuitable for automotive or outdoor use without modifications.

PLA vs. Other Filaments

Applications of PLA

• Prototyping: Conceptual models, architectural mockups, and casting molds.

• Consumer Goods: Decorative items, toys, and household accessories.

• Art and Design: Detailed sculptures, cosplay props, and display pieces.

• Education: Safe, low-cost material for classroom 3D printing projects.

Enhanced PLA Use Cases

• Functional Prototypes: PLA+ for snap-fit enclosures or lightweight tools.

• Engineering Components: Carbon fiber PLA for jigs, fixtures, or drone frames.

Requirements to Print PLA

There should be no specific requirements to print PLA unless using a special blend of it, which should be stated by the manufacturer. Examples of such unique requirements would be glow in the dark blends requiring a hardened nozzle due to being abrasive.

Polycarbonate (PC) is a high-performance thermoplastic revered for its exceptional strength, heat resistance, and optical clarity. Often used in bulletproof glass and aerospace components, PC brings industrial-grade durability to 3D printing. While challenging to print, its unique properties make it indispensable for functional prototypes, automotive parts, and translucent applications requiring resilience.

What Is Polycarbonate?

Polycarbonate is a transparent thermoplastic with high heat resistance and very high impact resistance, capable of withstanding forces that shatter glass or acrylic. Its key attributes include:

• High Tensile Strength: Comparable to concrete, with a tensile strength of 70–75 MPa.

• Heat Resistance: Maintains structural integrity up to 150°C (glass transition temperature) and heat deflection temperatures exceeding 115°C.

• Optical Clarity: Transmits light effectively, ideal for lenses, light guides, and transparent housings.

• Chemical Resistance: Withstands oils, solvents, and fuels, suitable for industrial environments.

Printing with Polycarbonate: Challenges and Solutions

PC’s demanding nature requires precise calibration and hardware modifications.

Optimal Settings

• Nozzle Temperature: 260–310°C (start at 265°C for standard PC, increase for composites).

• Print Speed: 30–60 mm/s (slower speeds enhance layer adhesion).

• Retraction: 1–2 mm at 20–30 mm/s to minimize stringing.

• Cooling Fan: 0% (excessive cooling causes warping).

Material Preparation

• Drying: Preheat filament at 70–80°C for 6–8 hours to remove moisture (PC is highly hygroscopic).

• Storage: Keep in airtight containers with desiccant to prevent reabsorption.

Common Challenges

• Warping: Mitigated by enclosed printers, heated beds, and slow first-layer speeds.

• Stringing/Oozing: Fine-tune retraction and enable coasting in slicer settings.

• Layer Adhesion: Higher nozzle temperatures, larger diameter nozzles, high chamber temperatures, and slower speeds improve bonding.

Advantages of Polycarbonate

1. Impact Resistance: Survives collisions and drops better than ABS, PETG, or PLA.

2. Thermal Stability: Withstands high-temperature environments (e.g., under-hood automotive parts).

3. Optical Clarity: Retains transparency post-printing, suitable for light diffusers or medical devices.

4. Chemical Durability: Resists degradation from oils, alcohols, and weak acids.

5. Electrical Insulation: Ideal for non-conductive housings in electronics.

Limitations of Polycarbonate

1. Print Complexity: Requires high-temperature hardware and enclosed printers.

2. UV Sensitivity: Degrades under prolonged sunlight unless coated.

3. Hygroscopic Behavior: Absorbs moisture rapidly, necessitating dry storage.

4. Post-Processing: Difficult to sand or smooth; machining or vapor polishing required.

Applications of Polycarbonate

• Automotive: Headlight housings, dash components, and engine bay fixtures.

• Electronics: Transparent enclosures, connectors, and insulating components.

• Medical: Surgical guides, sterilization-resistant tools, and imaging devices.

• Industrial: Jigs, fixtures, and machinery parts exposed to heat or chemicals.

• Consumer Goods: Durable phone cases, protective gear, and high-stress toys.

Reinforced Polycarbonate Variants

1. PC-ABS Blends: Combine PC’s strength with ABS’s.

2. PC-CF (Carbon Fiber): Enhances stiffness and heat resistance for aerospace and automotive uses.

3. PC-ISO (Medical Grade): Biocompatible and sterilizable for healthcare applications.

Requirements to Print PC

This can vary drastically depending on the type of nylon and the manufacturer requirements. Generally speaking though - you should have:

• Nozzle: All-metal hotend capable of 260–310°C (higher temps improve layer bonding).

• Bed: Heated to 90–120°C with PEI, BuildTak, or adhesive-coated glass for adhesion. Magigoo PC recommended.

• Enclosure: Maintains ambient temperatures of 60–70°C to prevent warping and delamination. Some polycarbonate formulas require up to 90°C chamber temps, something impossible for most consumer grade printers.

Composite 3D printing is something that has not been properly explored, but with the continual addition of multi-tool printers, we will likely see some crazy new composite prints.

Composite printing involves printing two or more different material types to create a print that has properties unique to both of the individual materials. For instance - you can stack TPU and PLA to make a part that can actually stop a bullet!

Most individuals in the 3D printing world regard standard PLA as a weak material. But this is actually not the case - standard PLA is quite strong in many metrics. It is very rigid, has good tensile strength, and can maintain a pretty high load of pressure.

The reason individuals think of PLA as weak is that it has a pretty low impact resistance. This means if you drop your print it is very likely to break - but that isn't the only way to measure strength.

Most individuals do not think of PLA when they think of weather resistant due to it having a low heat resistance - but PLA can actually be UV and weather resistant.

For instance - Polymaker's Matte PLA for Production has gone under weather resistance testing and it showed that it is actually just as weather and UV resistant as ASA!

Although it is recommended to use support for overhang angle, it usually saves time and material to being able to print high quality overhang surfaces.

The challenge when printing overhang surfaces is the amount of actual unsupported area. As you can see below the same angle can give different unsupported area depending on the layer height. It can appear that the smaller the unsupported area the better, however the smaller the layer height the less rigid the unsupported area will be. It will always be a balance between rigidity and amount of unsupported area.

Different factor can affect the overhang surfaces. As represented on the graphic below two main forces will be applied on the unsupported area: its weight (F1) and the polymer stress (F2).

The main factors affecting theses forces is summarized above, however generally speaking the best overhang surfaces will be given with a high layer height (more rigidity), low printing speed (more consistent extrusion) and high extrusion rate (more consistent extrusion).

Unfortunately, we do not have any data regarding whether a material is food-safe. As of now, no 3D printing material on the market is FDA food-safe compliant. This is because to be certified as food-safe, the actual object needs to be certified, not just the base material. The shape, bed used, environment in which the object was made, and many other factors contribute to obtaining a food safety certificate. Currently, there is no specific certification that the FDA offers for 3D printing.

Moreover, even if the material itself is food-safe, the printing process will likely cause the object to no longer be food-safe. This is due to the layers that 3D printing creates and the extrusion process. The gaps between layers can allow bacteria to build up, making it nearly impossible to clean perfectly. As a result, the object may be food-safe for one use, but getting it perfectly cleaned for reuse is not an easy task due to these small gaps between layers.

We often orient the prints to our build plate based on the best overhang quality and least amount of support material required – but this isn’t the only important thing to consider when orienting your print.

Since 3D printing will add material via layers – generally speaking the part will be the least strong in the Z axis being able to be broken across layer lines.

This means if you are printing a part that needs to be structurally and mechanically strong – you should consider print orientation when printing, and even when designing the part to be 3D printed.

If you ever notice that your print may be more matte on one section than another - this is more than likely due to the fact you a printing too fast for the hotend and material you are using.

Materials that are not meant for high flow printing will often turn a more matte finish when attempting to extrude too fast. This is because the material is not given enough time to heat to its set temperature.

If you want to print fast and maintain a shiny surface finish - make sure you are using a high flow material with a high flow hotend.

This issue will happen whenever you have a print with a very small surface area for any layer. This is most common when printing a part that comes to a point (think of a pyramid).

This occurs because there is not enough time for a layer to cool before the next hot layer is laid on top of it. This causes a print that comes to a point to get a melted, very ugly look to it.

There are a few very simple ways to solve this issue, but each comes with a bit of a drawback. Essentially we want to increase the time that the layer has to cool, or increase the rate at which the layer cools.

Print multiple objects instead of one

This obviously is not the best solution for every scenario since it will require you to print multiple of the same object, meaning you will waste material if you only have a need to print one.

That said - this is a preferred method if the model you are printing is quite small. This is because these thin areas will have time to cool as the print head moves to print the second object. This also means you won't have to worry about any oozing since the print head is not pausing allowing for oozing to occur.

Increase cooling fans

If you are printing with a material that allows for active cooling fans, then increasing the fan speeds will mean that each layer will cool faster.

This obviously has a drawback if using a material that cannot be rapidly cooled, such as Polycarbonate. But if you are printing in a material that allows for active cooling such as PLA, go ahead and crank up the fan speeds for when this thin part of the print is being printed.

Turn on/increase "Minimum Layer Time"

It will depend on what slicer you are using as to where you can find this and how the printer performs the operation, but you can always increase the minimum layer time:

In general, the majority of materials will be fine with a 3-5 second minimum layer time. So if we were to set this to 3 seconds, and a layer completes in under 3 seconds, your printer will pause and wait before starting the next layer. If your layer were to complete in 1 second and then start the next layer without pausing, then the previous layer will still be hot and start to curl upward as the nozzle goes back over it.

This obviously has the drawback of increasing oozing since the nozzle will just be paused above the print, allowing for gravity and residual pressure to ooze out material.

Some slicers will just slow down your print speeds so that it takes the printer a minimum of 3 seconds in the above example to finish a layer. This also has the drawback that if you are printing a very small surface area layer, you can still get this ugly print since the hot nozzle is now moving very slowly over the same area.

Summary of Fixes and Precautions

• Print more than one object so that each layer has more time to cool

• Increase cooling fans so that the cooling rate is increased

• Increase the minimum layer time so that each layer has more time to cool

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Luckily as 3D printers have advanced over the past few years, the amount of work required on your end has decreased drastically. That said – there are still a few good practices that you can perform periodically to make sure you are continually having consistent, clean prints.

Keep a Clean Environment

Advancements in 3D printing have reduced the amount of manual intervention required, but maintaining a clean workspace remains essential for consistent and high-quality results. A cluttered area can quickly spiral into a disorganized mess, complicating the printing process and potentially damaging equipment.

Loose filament strands and scattered debris can interfere with printer mechanics or be blown onto active prints by cooling fans. Regularly disposing of excess materials and keeping the build area tidy helps prevent print failures and hardware malfunctions.

The build plate should also be maintained regularly. While it may not need cleaning after every print, the optimal frequency depends on the type of build plate and the adhesion method being used. Cleaning the plate every few prints can help ensure consistent first-layer adhesion. Tools like air compressors are useful for removing dust and debris without disassembling components.

Print Replacement Parts in Advance

While modern printers often have readily available replacement components, especially from manufacturers like Bambu Lab, users of custom-built machines like Vorons or printers with 3D-printed parts should still prepare by printing spares ahead of time. This is especially critical when relying on a single machine.

Replacement part files are often provided by manufacturers or found on community repositories like Thingiverse or Printables. Keeping extras on hand prevents downtime and frustration if a structural or functional component fails unexpectedly.

Even for proprietary systems, some replacement and upgrade parts (e.g., feet, covers, AMS components) are often available through communities like MakerWorld.com.

Slow the Printer Down

Modern printers are designed for speed, but reducing print speed can help solve a variety of issues. Slower speeds reduce stress on mechanical components, improve print consistency, and help identify other potential issues during troubleshooting.

Material properties and hotend capabilities play a major role in determining appropriate print speeds. Achieving proper material viscosity is essential for clean extrusion. Faster printing often requires higher temperatures to maintain proper flow, particularly with machines capable of high-speed output.

Attempting to print demanding materials like TPU at high flow rates on a stock printer is unlikely to succeed without proper calibration. Slower speeds make diagnosis easier and reduce the likelihood of under-extrusion and layer misalignment.

Modern slicers often include max volumetric speed settings to help regulate these parameters. Adjusting these values can be key when troubleshooting inconsistent results.

Save slicer profiles and print revisions

This is not as important anymore with slicers that save in the 3MF format, but you will still want to save slicer profiles whenever you make tweaks that you think you will need to reference again in a future print. The same is true when you save G-code or 3MF files. While you can often just send a print directly to the printer via WiFi – it would still be smart to save a copy to your computer hard drive in case you need to reference it in the future.

The naming you give to these files and profiles is very important – you need to follow the same formatting so that you can easily reference past files. Don’t call your sliced file “Print_5” or “Final_02”, you will have no ability to reference them later.

It's wise to save profiles so you can revisit ones that have proven successful in the past. This practice can save significant time when printing a new material you've previously succeeded with. Additionally, it aids in identifying whether an issue is related to slicing, mechanics, or materials, as your prior settings have been effective.

Luckily with 3MF files you actually can reference the profile by opening said 3MF file, so it is nice to have this added option today. Just make sure your naming is in a manner you know what you are looking at.

Save Slicer Profiles and Print Revisions

Despite improvements in slicer software and the widespread use of 3MF files, saving slicer profiles and G-code revisions is still highly recommended. Archiving specific settings allows for quick reference in future projects or troubleshooting.

Well-labeled files allow users to easily identify configurations that worked well in the past, helping determine whether issues stem from slicing, hardware, or materials.

3MF files include embedded slicer settings, offering another layer of reference when diagnosing problems or replicating successful prints.

Properly Store Filament

Filament, particularly hygroscopic materials like nylon or PVA, must be stored correctly to prevent moisture absorption. Even mildly damp filament can cause extrusion issues, affecting print quality.

Filament should be kept in a low-humidity, dark, temperature-stable environment. In humid climates, moisture protection becomes even more critical, especially when ambient humidity exceeds 70%.

One surefire way to tell if your filament has absorbed too much moisture is if you ever hear any "popping" or "cracking" noises while extruding.

Generally speaking, materials like PLA are far less suceptible to being too wet - but technically speaking any material can absorb too much moisture if left out in a humid climate for too long.

Always Check the First Layer

Although modern printers now feature excellent Z-height calibration and auto-leveling, verifying the first layer before leaving a print unattended remains one of the simplest and most effective ways to prevent failure.

A poorly adhered first layer is still the most common reason for failed prints. If the nozzle is too close to the bed, it may cause damage; too far, and the print may not adhere properly, leading to wasted time and materials.

Even with accurate calibration systems, no printer is infallible. Observing the first few layers ensures the print is on track and avoids the frustration of coming back to a failed print several hours later.

Replace Nozzles When Needed

Many print issues can be traced back to worn or damaged nozzles. Brass nozzles, in particular, degrade quickly and should not be used with abrasive materials.

Upgrading to a hardened steel nozzle significantly increases lifespan and expands material compatibility. Options like E3D’s ObXidian™ HotEnd, designed for Bambu Lab machines, offer both high flow and wear resistance.

Only buy nozzles from trusted manufacturers, as poorly machined nozzles with loose tolerances can negatively affect print quality. Brands such as E3D, Slice Engineering, and MicroSwiss maintain high manufacturing standards.

If issues persist despite checking all other variables, nozzle wear is a likely cause and should be addressed before further troubleshooting.

Stay Patient and Persistent

3D printing can be a rewarding but occasionally frustrating endeavor. Calibration and print failures—especially with long or intricate jobs—are common, particularly when using new machines or materials.

Persistence and methodical troubleshooting are key. Most problems have identifiable causes and solutions. Maintaining a calm, step-by-step approach will help reduce frustration and improve long-term success.

Carbon fiber reinforced materials are filled with continuous fibers or fiber particles that result in parts with improved physical properties and high stiffness. There is a variety of carbon fiber reinforced options out there for 3D printing, but they all require drastically different print settings.

Carbon fiber-reinforced filaments combine the benefits of thermoplastics with the strength and stiffness of carbon fibers, creating materials optimized for engineering-grade applications. These composites are ideal for lightweight, durable parts requiring enhanced mechanical properties and dimensional stability.

What Are Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Filaments?

Carbon fiber filaments infuse short carbon fibers into a base thermoplastic (e.g., PLA, PETG, Nylon, ABS, or PC). The fibers increase rigidity, reduce warping, and improve heat resistance while maintaining the printability of the base material.

Key Benefits

• Increased Stiffness: Fibers enhance rigidity, reducing flex in structural components.

• Dimensional Stability: Minimizes shrinkage and warping during cooling.

• Lightweight: Lower density than metals, ideal for weight-sensitive industries.

• Improved Heat Resistance: Higher heat deflection temperatures than base materials.

Common Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Options

1. PLA-CF

• Base Material: PLA

• Properties: Enhanced stiffness and surface finish, but reduced layer adhesion and impact resistance.

• Applications: Aesthetic prototypes, drone frames, lightweight fixtures.

• Limitations: Brittle; unsuitable for high-stress or high-temperature environments.

2. PETG-CF

• Base Material: PETG

• Properties: Balances rigidity with UV/chemical resistance; less prone to warping than ABS-CF.

• Applications: Automotive trim, outdoor fixtures, functional prototypes.

• Limitations: Reduced ductility compared to standard PETG.

3. Nylon-CF (e.g., NylonX, PA-CF)

• Base Material: Nylon (PA6/PA12)

• Properties: High tensile strength (up to 100 MPa), heat resistance (HDT up to 155°C), and fatigue resistance.

• Applications: Jigs, gears, aerospace brackets, and under-hood automotive parts.

• Limitations: Requires rigorous drying and abrasion-resistant hardware.

4. ABS-CF

• Base Material: ABS

• Properties: Improved stiffness and reduced warping compared to standard ABS.

• Applications: Automotive prototypes, enclosures, and functional components.

• Limitations: Prone to fumes; requires ventilation.

5. PC-CF

• Base Material: Polycarbonate

• Properties: Exceptional strength (tensile ~70–75 MPa) and heat resistance (up to 150°C).

• Applications: Aerospace components, high-temperature fixtures, and electrical insulators.

• Limitations: Demands high nozzle temperatures (300–330°C) and enclosed printers.

6. Specialty Composites

• PPS-CF: High thermal stability (up to 260°C short-term) for aerospace and chemical-resistant parts.

• PP-CF: Lightweight with fatigue resistance for hinges and snap-fit assemblies.

Printing Considerations

Hardware Requirements

• Nozzle: Hardened steel, ruby, or diamond-coated to withstand abrasion.

• Bed Adhesion: PEI sheets, adhesives (e.g., Magigoo), or textured surfaces.

• Enclosure: Recommended for warping-prone materials (e.g., ABS-CF, Nylon-CF).

Challenges

• Abrasion: Accelerated wear on extruder gears and Bowden tubes.

• Moisture Sensitivity: Nylon-CF and PC-CF require drying (70–80°C for 4–6 hours).

• Layer Adhesion: Higher nozzle temps and slower speeds improve bonding.

Applications by Industry

Pros and Cons

Advantages

• Strength-to-Weight Ratio: Lighter than metal with comparable rigidity.

• Dimensional Stability: Reduced warping for precision parts.

• Aesthetic Appeal: Matte finish with visible fiber texture.

Limitations

• Brittleness: Reduced impact resistance in some formulations (e.g., PLA-CF).

• Cost: More expensive than standard filaments.

• Hardware Wear: Abrasive fibers necessitate frequent nozzle replacements.

Print quality and printing time depend on several factors, with nozzle diameter and layer height having the most significant impact.

Nozzle Diameter

Nozzle diameter determines the line width of printed segments, which affects tolerances in the X/Y direction. While some users adjust line width slightly, maintaining the same value as the nozzle diameter is common. Experimenting with a 10% increase has produced favorable results (e.g., printing a 0.44mm line width with a 0.4mm nozzle).

Any section of the print narrower than the line width will not be printed; therefore, a thinner nozzle diameter can lead to higher print quality. Certain slicer settings may allow for printing thin walls, though dimensions smaller than the line width may not be accurate.

Reducing nozzle diameter and line width increases print time. Printing speeds must decrease to prevent bottlenecking, and lower layer heights are often necessary.

A general guideline is to allow a clearance of half the nozzle diameter for mating parts. Printing a tolerance test can confirm optimal clearance settings for specific printers. Tighter clearances may be achievable with thinner nozzles, as half the nozzle diameter will be smaller.

Smaller nozzle diameters can also reduce layer adhesion. Larger diameter nozzles create increased entanglements between layers, which can improve layer adhesion.

A geared extruder is necessary when using very small nozzle diameters. Sufficient torque is needed to push filament through 0.15mm or 0.25mm diameter nozzles due to significant bottlenecking. Direct-drive extruders are preferable to Bowden setups for this purpose, as most Bowden extruders have difficulty pushing filament through extremely fine diameter nozzles.

Commonly used nozzle diameters include 0.25mm, 0.4mm, and 0.6mm. Smaller diameters can be challenging to dial in and result in long print times, while larger diameters can compromise tolerances. A 0.8mm nozzle is suitable for vase mode prints. For extremely large printers where quality is not a primary concern, a 1.4mm nozzle can be used.

For applications requiring super high detail, such as small jewelry, resin printing is recommended.

Effect of Nozzle Diameter on Layer Height

Layer height ranges that will result in reliable prints will depend on the nozzle diameter. Layer heights should remain within 25-75% (or perhaps 20-80%) of the nozzle diameter. A 0.15mm nozzle should print with 0.04mm – 0.11mm layer heights, and a 0.8mm nozzle should print with 0.2mm – 0.6mm layer heights. The extrusion reliability and quality decrease outside of these ranges.

Printing with a small nozzle and too large of layer heights increases the likelihood of clogging and filament grinding. Printing at excessively low layer heights on a large nozzle will not achieve optimal tolerances and quality.

Layer Heights

Layer height refers to the thickness of each individual layer in the Z-direction. Larger layer heights reduce quality in the Z-direction, but allow for much faster printing. Printing at 0.2mm layer heights takes approximately half as long as printing the same object at 0.1mm layer heights.

Print speeds for a standard extruder/hotend setup often follow a bell curve. Printing speeds may need to slow down at very low layer heights and with small diameter nozzles to prevent bottlenecking and nozzle clogs. Print speeds may also need to slow down when using very large nozzles and layer heights to achieve the proper viscosity due to the increased volume being extruded per second. If printing speeds are too high with large layer heights and nozzle diameters, the material may not have enough time to melt.

For example, a standard E3D V6 hotend prints up to 15mm3/s. An E3D Volcano can print up to approximately 40mm3/s, allowing for faster printing with larger nozzles and layer heights.

The fastest linear speed on a standard V6 setup uses a 0.6mm nozzle at around 0.25mm layer heights. A larger 0.8mm nozzle may require reduced print speeds. Lower print speeds are needed when moving to a 0.4mm or 0.25mm nozzle.

Standardizing on a 0.4mm hardened steel nozzle with 0.1mm – 0.25mm layer heights is suitable for most 3D printing applications.

In order to get dry material - having good airflow is more important than having high heat. We always say "you don't dry your hair by putting it in the oven".

Having good airflow will make it so that you can dry your filament at a lower temperature and for a shorter amount of time.

Below is a full list of FAQ when working with Polymaker and 3D printing in general. Each of these topics is covered further in this Wiki, but this can make for a great starting point for your frequently asked questions.

Getting Started with 3D Printing

Help with 3D Printing

A slicer is critical software in 3D printing that bridges digital 3D models and physical printers. It converts models (STL, OBJ, 3MF, etc.) into G-code—a machine-readable set of instructions for layer-by-layer printing. The process involves:

1. Layer Segmentation: Dividing the model into horizontal layers (e.g., 0.1–0.3mm thickness).

2. Toolpath Generation: Calculating extruder movements, including travel paths, infill patterns, and support structures.

3. Parameter Configuration: Defining print speed, temperature, retraction, and material flow.

4. G-Code Export: Compiling instructions for the printer to execute.

Key Features of Modern Slicers

• Support Structures: Automatically generates supports for overhangs (e.g., lattice or tree supports) to prevent failures.

• Infill Optimization: Adjusts internal patterns (e.g., grid, gyroid) to balance material use and part strength.

• Adhesion Aids: Adds skirts, brims, or rafts to improve bed adhesion and reduce warping.

• Customizable Settings: Fine-tunes layer height, print speed, and cooling for material-specific requirements.

• Advanced Algorithms: Optimizes print time and material efficiency while maintaining precision.

Evolution of Slicer Preferences

Slicer popularity has shifted significantly:

1. Simplify3D: Once dominant for granular control, its paid model (~$199) and lack of updates reduced its appeal.

2. Cura (Ultimaker): Free, open-source, and user-friendly, it remains a staple for beginners and hobbyists.

3. PrusaSlicer: Gained traction for multi-material workflows and tree supports but is optimized for Prusa printers.

4. Bambu Studio: Free software tailored for Bambu Lab printers (e.g., X1 Carbon), offering multi-color printing, STEP file support, and AI failure detection.

5. Orca Slicer: A free, open-source alternative to Bambu Studio, compatible with wider printer ecosystems (e.g., Creality, Qidi) and offering advanced calibration tools.

Proprietary vs. Open-Source Slicers

• Proprietary Options: Brands like Zortrax and MakerBot require dedicated slicers optimized for their hardware and materials.

• Open-Source Flexibility: Cura and Orca Slicer adapt to third-party printers (e.g., FlashForge, Qidi) with profile adjustments.

Optimizing Workflows

• Material Profiles: Pre-configured settings streamline filament-specific adjustments.

• Test Prints: Calibration models help users fine-tune slicer settings for dimensional accuracy and surface quality.

• Security and Control: Platforms offer managed permissions and cloud-based slicing for enterprise environments.

Slicer software is indispensable for translating creative designs into functional 3D prints. While proprietary tools suit specific hardware, open-source options like Cura and Orca Slicer dominate due to their adaptability and active development. Bambu Studio’s specialized features cater to its ecosystem, while PrusaSlicer excels in multi-material workflows. As the industry evolves, slicers continue to integrate advanced algorithms and user-centric features, ensuring efficient, high-quality output across diverse applications.

FDM 3D printing has unlocked a fascinating paradox: the ability to create machines that can, in turn, create more machines. From extruder assemblies to enclosures, hobbyists and engineers now use FDM to fabricate custom 3D printers tailored to specific needs—whether ultra-fast CoreXY systems, multi-material tool-changing setups, or industrial-grade enclosures. This self-replicating capability has roots in the RepRap movement, which pioneered open-source 3D printers in the 2000s, but modern advancements like Voron builds and modular tool changers have pushed the concept into new realms of precision and customization.

The Evolution of DIY 3D Printers

• RepRap Roots: Early DIY printers relied on printed parts and basic hardware, proving FDM’s potential for self-replication.

• Voron Revolution: Open-source Voron printers introduced CoreXY kinematics, quad gantry leveling, and community-driven innovation, enabling industrial-grade speed and accuracy at hobbyist prices.

• Tool-Changing Systems: Printers like the E3D ToolChanger and DIY similar systems such as the Voron StealthChanger allow swapping extruders, lasers, or CNC heads mid-print, enabling multi-material or multi-functional workflows.

Designing for Custom Needs

• CoreXY vs. Cartesian: CoreXY’s belt-driven dual-motor system reduces moving mass, enabling faster prints without sacrificing detail.

• Enclosures: Heat-resistant materials ensure stable chamber temperatures for ABS, ASA, and high-performance filaments.

• Modularity: Printed mounts, cable chains, and toolhead adapters let users upgrade components (e.g., adding a pellet extruder or high-flow hotend).

Polymaker Materials for Printer Construction

Polymaker’s engineering-grade filaments are critical for durable, heat-resistant components in custom printers.

1. PolyLite™ ABS

• Properties: High impact resistance, higher heat deflection (~95°C), and ease of post-processing (sanding, acetone smoothing).

• Applications: Printer frames, motor mounts, and electronics enclosures needing rigidity and thermal stability.

2. PolyLite™ ASA

• Properties: Superior UV and weather resistance, higher heat tolerance (~100°C), and minimal warping compared to ABS.

• Applications: Outdoor-rated enclosures, tool-changing docks, and parts exposed to heated chambers or sunlight.

Why ABS/ASA Dominate

• Enclosure Compatibility: Withstand chamber temperatures up to 90°C, critical for warping-prone materials like polycarbonate.

• Layer Adhesion: Optimized formulations reduce delamination risks in structural components like Z-axis braces.

• Cost Efficiency: Affordable alternative to metal for non-load-bearing parts (e.g., spool holders, fan ducts).

Case Study: Building a Voron 2.4

1. Frame: Print belt tensioners, gantry mounts, and panel clips in ASA for dimensional stability.

2. Electronics: Use ABS for the control board case to shield components from heat.

3. Toolhead: Optimize airflow with ASA ducts resistant to hotend proximity.

Tool-Changing Innovations

• Mechanical Simplicity: DIY designs use printed latches and docks to swap hotends without motors, slashing costs.

• Multi-Material: Print soluble supports with one toolhead and high-temp filament with another, all in a single print.

• Hybrid Systems: Add laser engravers or CNC mills to FDM bases using printed adapters.

The Future of Self-Replicating Printers

Open-source ecosystems like Voron’s community are democratizing industrial-grade capabilities, while Polymaker’s materials ensure reliability. Whether building a compact Voron 0.2 for rapid prototyping or a Voron 350 for full-scale production, FDM empowers makers to iterate endlessly—proving that the most revolutionary tool in 3D printing is the printer itself.

By combining modular design, advanced materials, and community ingenuity, custom 3D printers are no longer just tools—they’re testaments to the technology’s limitless potential.

Sanding and Surface Preparation

Sanding is essential for achieving smooth, professional finishes on 3D-printed components. The process varies by material and application:

• Grit Progression: Begin with 220-grit sandpaper for most materials (e.g., PLA) to remove visible layer lines without distorting details. Progress to 800–2000 grit for polished surfaces. Lower grits (e.g., 180) may be used for hard plastics but risk heat-related deformation.

• Material-Specific Tips:

  • ABS: Sands more easily than PLA; start with 240–320 grit.

  • CosPLA (Polymaker): Formulated for easier sanding, ideal for cosplay/prop applications.

• Tools and Techniques:

  • Power Sanders: Effective for flat surfaces; avoid prolonged contact to prevent heat buildup (critical for PLA).

  • Dremel Tools: Useful for intricate areas but require careful handling to avoid melting or gouging.

  • Wet Sanding: Reduces dust and heat; use with 400+ grit for fine finishes.

Bondo (Automotive Body Filler)

Bondo is a high-strength filler for sealing large seams or gaps in functional parts.

• Application: Ideal for load-bearing joints or structural repairs.

• Challenges:

  • Sanding Difficulty: Requires electric sanders or rotary tools; manual sanding is ineffective.

  • Heat Sensitivity: Risk of melting PLA during aggressive sanding.

• Best Practices: Apply sparingly to minimize post-processing; avoid 90-degree angles due to sanding limitations.

Spackle (Lightweight Filler)

Spackle is suited for non-functional, display-oriented models.

• Pros:

  • Ease of Use: Spreadable by hand into fine gaps; sands easily with 800+ grit paper.

  • Quick Drying: Ready for sanding within 30 minutes.

• Cons:

  • Low Durability: Prone to dents/scratches; unsuitable for mechanical parts.

  • Limited Strength: Avoid applications requiring stress resistance.

Model Putty

Model putty bridges the gap between Bondo and Spackle, offering moderate strength with manageable sanding requirements.

• Use Cases: Small-to-medium seams needing durability without extensive finishing.

• Sanding: Expect more effort than Spackle but less than Bondo; ideal for detailed cosmetic repairs.

Material-Specific Guidelines

• PLA: Prioritize progressive sanding; avoid high-speed tools on thin walls.

• ABS: Tolerates aggressive sanding; pair with acetone smoothing for glossy finishes.

• Functional Parts: Use Bondo or epoxy fillers for structural integrity.

• Display Models: Opt for Spackle or model putty for quick, low-stress fixes.

Note: Always test fillers/adhesives on scrap prints to assess compatibility and finish quality.

The process of annealing is done for different purposes depending on the material. That said - the process will be the same - annealing is the process of heating up the printed parts at a certain temperature for a certain period of time.

Nylon

Our nylon filaments come with our Warp-Free™ technology. This Warp-Free™ technology solves one root of the cause of warping - crystallization.

Indeed, Nylon is known as challenging to print because of its warping behavior, because when printing, the quick formation of crystals within each layers will create a lot of internal stress - resulting in part deformation.

Polymaker’s technology is not only reducing this stress, but it is increasing the mechanical properties of the part. The technology slows down the crystallization rate of the polymer, which prevents it from quickly forming small crystals within each layer as they are printed. Instead, it allows the polymer to slowly build big crystal across layers, since multiple layers have time to be printed before the formation of crystals. These crystals across the layers will also significantly increase the inter layer adhesion. This is also the reason why Polymaker will recommend to anneal the part after the printing process. Annealing ensures the part has reached its highest degree of crystallinity, providing the best thermal and mechanical properties.

This means you are not on a time crunch with our nylon materials to get them in the oven the moment the print finishes, as we recommend with polycarbonate which you will read about shortly. You can get the print into the oven at your convenience - just know after you anneal in the oven, the nylon will be dried out and will slowly moisture condition after. Learn more about moisture conditioning HERE.

Each nylon will have slightly different annealing recommendations, but we generally recommend between 80˚-100˚C for 6-16 hours. This will allow the nylon to fully crystallize.

If you have a print that has very thin walls - to help prevent any warping or deformation of said thin section - we would recommend a gradual heating method. Divide the annealing process into two stages, first keep the temperature at a temperature 20-30 degrees lower than the final temperature for a period of time, and then slowly heat it to the final recommended annealing temperature to avoid rapid heating and internal stress concentration.​

Polycarbonate

Polycarbonate has a lot of internal stress creation when being stretched through a small die (nozzle). You can find out more about this stress creation on our Material Science page.

Essentially, polycarbonate likes to print in a very hot environment in order to cool below its glass transition temperature as slowly as possible. If polycarbonate cools too rapidly - then it is very likely that the layers will "crack" and delaminate.

This means the best environment to print polycarbonate would be in a heated chamber printer where the ambient air is above 90˚C, and then you maintain that heated chamber temperature for 2 hours post printing before allowing to cool slowly to room temperature. This increased air temperature will slow down the release of internal stresses and reduce any chances of delamination.

Since most makers do not have a heated chamber that can get above 60˚C, annealing is required right after your PC print finishes. You will want your oven set to 90˚C and already at its set temperature before the print finishes. Then, the moment your print finishes, you will want to take it and put it directly into that oven.

You may need to transfer the print with the build plate, since removing the print from a very hot build plate can be difficult or not possible.

Leave the print in your oven for at least 2 hours, and then let the oven slowly cool to room temperature before removing the print. This additional time at 90˚C will allow the part to very slowly cool and maintain it's layer adhesion strength.

Other Crystalline Polymers

We covered the difference between amorphous and semi-crystalline polymers in our Material Science page for further information.

Some materials - like nylon described earlier - do not reach full crystallization without annealing. This is not due to our technology but just rather a function of the material.

Materials such as Fiberon™ PPS-CF10 and Fiberon™ PET-CF17 are semi-crystalline and therefore do not reach their full heat resistance without being annealed. Each of these materials will have their own annealing recommended settings on their product page with further information in the FAQ.

Other semi-crystalline materials can be annealed though we do not have suggested settings, since annealing runs the risk of deforming the part or changing the dimensions.

Annealing Amorphous Materials

Amorphous materials, such as ABS, ASA, and PETG, do not get nearly the same benefit from annealing as semi-crystalline polymers do. The annealing process is more effective for semi-crystalline materials where crystalline structures can be developed or reorganized.

The benefits to annealing amorphous materials are mainly dimensional stability and residual stress reduction.

We do not have any direct recommendations for annealing amorphous materials, but if you want to try it out, we would generally recommend a low annealing temperature of just below the material's glass transition points. For example ~70°C for PETG, ~95°C for ASA. This will help prevent distortion while reducing residual stress.

Layer Height Fundamentals

Layer height significantly impacts print quality and duration, with optimal ranges dictated by nozzle diameter. A 0.1mm layer height triples print time compared to 0.3mm when using the same nozzle and speeds, as it requires three times the number of layers. Reliable results are achievable within 25–75% of the nozzle diameter (though some suggest 20-80%):

• Example: A 0.4mm nozzle performs best at 0.1–0.3mm layer heights.

• Quality vs. Speed: Thicker layers reduce detail in the Z axis but accelerate printing, while thinner layers enhance Z resolution at the cost of time.

Print duration also influences failure likelihood. Longer prints increase exposure to environmental variables (e.g., temperature shifts, power interruptions). Additionally, extrusion speeds often need reduction for thinner layers to prevent nozzle clogs or under-extrusion. Conversely, very large layer heights may also require reduced speed due to the max volumetric speed of your material and/or hotend.

Mechanical Considerations: Z-Axis Hardware

Generally speaking - modern printers are not as affected by what is covered below, but it still can be beneficial to understand it.

Layer height precision is affected by Z-axis leadscrew/threaded rod specifications, including pitch and motor step angle. Mismatched settings can introduce inconsistencies due to mechanical rounding errors. For example:

• M8 Leadscrew (2mm pitch): Adjustable in 0.01mm increments with a 1.8° stepper motor.

• M5 Leadscrew (0.8mm pitch): Requires adjustments in 0.014mm increments for optimal precision.

These tolerances matter most on budget machines, where hardware limitations amplify imperfections. While deviations from calculated values may yield acceptable results, adhering to mechanical constraints ensures maximum consistency.

Initial Layer Height for Bed Adhesion

The initial layer height prioritizes adhesion over detail. A thicker first layer (up to 75% of nozzle diameter) improves bed bonding by increasing material deposition. For example:

• 0.4mm Nozzle: Initial layers up to 0.3mm enhance adhesion.

• 0.15mm Nozzle: Maximum initial layer of 0.11mm demands extreme precision, magnifying build plate leveling challenges.

Smaller nozzles exacerbate first-layer difficulties due to reduced tolerance for Z-height miscalibration.

Line Width: Balancing Nozzle Size and Extrusion

Line width typically matches the nozzle diameter, but adjustments can address specific needs:

• Standard Practice: A 0.4mm nozzle uses 0.4mm line width.

• Experimental Tweaks: Increasing line width by 10% (e.g., 0.44mm on a 0.4mm nozzle) may improve surface finish but risks over-extrusion. For drastic changes, switching nozzles is often preferable.

Top/Bottom Line Width adjustments can resolve gaps in upper layers. Reducing this setting slightly (e.g., 0.35mm on a 0.4mm nozzle) encourages tighter extrusion paths, minimizing voids on flat surfaces.

Advanced Calibration and Community Insights

While most slicer settings (e.g., wall thickness, infill density) remain unchanged for general use, niche scenarios may warrant adjustments:

• Material-Specific Tuning: Flexible filaments like TPU often require reduced speeds and increased line widths to prevent buckling.

• Hardware Limitations: Budget printers benefit from conservative layer heights (e.g., 0.2mm) to mitigate Z-axis inaccuracies.

The 3D printing community continually refines best practices, encouraging experimentation with slicer parameters. Documenting successful adjustments ensures reproducibility across projects.

Key Takeaways

• Layer Height: Balance speed and quality within 25–75% of nozzle diameter.

• Z-Axis Hardware: Match layer heights to leadscrew pitch for precision.

• Initial Layer: Prioritize adhesion with thicker first layers.

• Line Width: Align with nozzle size but experiment cautiously.

By understanding these principles, users can optimize prints for efficiency, reliability, and quality across diverse applications.

Primer Application for 3D Prints

To prepare prints for painting, begin with a flat gray primer or primer filler. Ensure parts are fully assembled, sanded smooth, and free of debris. Use compressed air or a powerful blower to remove residual dust.

Application Process:

1. Environment: Work in a well-ventilated outdoor area or spray booth with a protective tarp.

2. Spray Technique: Apply a light, even coat from 6–12 inches away to avoid drips.

3. Drying Time: Allow 2+ hours for the primer to cure before painting.

Primer Filler Advantages:

• Surface Refinement: Sand after drying (e.g., 800–1200 grit) to eliminate minor imperfections.

• Multi-Step Smoothing: Apply primer filler, sand, clean, and repeat for a near-flawless finish. Note that excessive sanding may compromise fine details.

Painting Techniques

Airbrushing:

• Strengths: Delivers even coverage and gradient shading; ideal for large surfaces.

• Limitations: Less precise for intricate details compared to hand painting.

Hand Painting:

• Use Cases: Small areas, fine lines, or detailed features (e.g., eyes, textures).

• Brush Selection: High-quality, thin brushes improve precision.

Paint Options:

• Acrylics: Affordable and widely available; practice required for smooth application.

• Model Paints: Higher pigment density for professional results.

• Clear Coats: Finish with satin or glossy spray to seal and protect the paint.

Material Considerations:

• Flexible Filaments: Avoid acrylics, as they crack under flexion. Use specialized flexible paints instead.

• Drying Time: Patience is critical—rushing causes clumping or uneven textures.

Skill Development:

• Practice: Experiment with gradients, masking, and layering to refine techniques.

• Tutorials: Study professional guides for complex tasks like eye detailing or texture replication.

Summary Recommendations

• Primer: Essential for paint adhesion; primer filler enhances surface quality.

• Tool Selection: Combine airbrushing (broad coverage) and hand painting (details) for optimal results.

• Material Awareness: Match paints to filament properties to prevent cracking or peeling.

Lastly, many have benefitted from a YouTube tutorial video titled "GalactiCustoms: 1/6 Paint Tutorial: Obi-Wan Kenobi- Pt 3 Eyes," which provided valuable insights into painting eyes and significantly enhanced the appearance of my painted parts.

Acetone Vapor Smoothing for ABS and ASA ABS and ASA prints benefit from acetone vapor smoothing, a post-processing technique that enhances surface finish and water resistance. These materials dissolve in acetone, enabling surface molecules to redistribute into a glossy, injection-molded appearance.

Key Advantages:

• Aesthetic Improvement: Eliminates layer lines and creates a smooth, reflective surface.

• Functional Benefits: Increases water resistance and reduces part porosity.

Safety Precautions:

• Flammability: Acetone is highly flammable. Perform smoothing in well-ventilated areas away from open flames.

• Alternative Methods: Non-heated acetone techniques (e.g., cold vapor baths) reduce fire risks.

Process Overview:

1. Setup:

   • Suspend prints on a metal grate or fishing line inside a heat-resistant container (e.g., cooking pot).

   • Heat the container on a build plate or hot plate to 65–75°C until acetone vapor forms.

2. Exposure:

   • Limit sessions to 1–3 minutes to prevent deformation. Multiple short passes are safer than prolonged exposure.

   • For large prints, use a broiler setup with ventilation holes to ensure even vapor distribution.

3. Drying:

   • Air-dry parts for 30 minutes before handling.

   • Optional vacuum purging accelerates curing and strengthens bonds.

Post-Processing Notes:

• Overexposure Risks: Excessive acetone contact may cause long-term cracking.

• Uneven Results: Acetone vapor sinks, potentially over-smoothing lower sections. A small fan improves vapor circulation.

Polysher and Alcohol-Based Smoothing (PVB Filaments)

Polymaker’s Polysher system uses isopropyl alcohol (IPA) to smooth PVB-based filaments like PolySmooth. This method avoids acetone’s flammability risks but sacrifices mechanical strength and heat resistance.

Key Considerations:

• Material Limitations: Restricted to alcohol-soluble filaments (e.g., PVB).

• Safety: IPA is less flammable than acetone but still volatile. Avoid heating above 40°C.

• Alternatives:

  • Manual Spraying: Apply IPA with a misting bottle for localized smoothing.

  • Cold Baths: Submerge prints in IPA without heat for gradual smoothing.

Best Applications:

• Cosmetic Models: Ideal for miniatures, figurines, or display pieces requiring a polished finish.

• Avoid for Functional Parts: PVB’s lower heat resistance and mechanical strength limit structural use.

Polysher Limitations:

• Size Constraints: Limited to parts fitting inside the device’s chamber.

• Material Dependency: Requires PVB or similar alcohol-soluble filaments.

Summary Recommendations

• ABS/ASA: Prioritize acetone vapor for durable, heat-resistant parts with glossy finishes.

• PVB/PolySmooth: Opt for alcohol-based methods for safer, cosmetic-focused applications.

• Safety First: Always prioritize ventilation, fire safety, and material compatibility.

Maintaining a 3D printer involves regularly scheduled tasks and readily available supplies to prevent issues and ensure optimal performance. Certain tools are used frequently, while others are reserved for occasional maintenance.

Essential Accessories

Specific tools enhance 3D printing and printer maintenance.

• Pliers: Indispensable for removing support material from prints, pliers also assist in holding components during tasks like nozzle replacements.

• Razor Blade: Useful for cleaning up prints, especially for removing brims and tidying rough edges or stringing. Exercise caution when using.

• Model Cutters: Thin, sharp scissors are essential for delicate prints, especially when removing support material from fragile sections.

• Scraper: A sturdy metal scraper with a tapered front improves usability and durability for removing prints from the build plate.

• Metric Allen Screwdriver Set: Essential for accessing and maintaining various components of the printer. Common sizes include M2.5, M3, M4, and M5. A color-coded set can help easily identify each size.

• Solder Set or Solder Seal Wire Connectors: Soldering equipment is essential for repairing frayed wires and making electrical connections. Solder seal wire connectors provide a secure solder-free alternative. While potentially unnecessary for closed-source printers, soldering equipment is useful to have on hand.

• Tweezers: Fine-tipped tweezers are useful for removing excess material or debris from prints, particularly during the printing process.

• Zip Ties: Helpful for securing cables and organizing wires within the printer.

• Calipers: Accurate measurement tools are essential for precise modeling, filament measurement, and determining E-steps.

• Multimeter: Invaluable for diagnosing electrical issues, particularly for checking continuity and voltage.

• Loctite Super Glue Gel or 3D Gloop: Fast-drying adhesives ideal for minor repairs on PLA prints, providing a strong and durable bond.

• White Lithium Grease: Regularly lubricating threaded and smooth rods helps ensure smooth and consistent operation.

• Wire and Nylon Brushes: Nylon brushes clean dirty nozzles and heater blocks, while brass brushes address more stubborn residue, used sparingly due to potential abrasion.

• Heatsinks: Installing heatsinks on components prone to overheating, such as stepper motors, helps dissipate excess heat and maintain optimal operating temperatures. This is often unnecessary on closed-source printers.

• Organization Tools: Storing accessories in an organized and accessible location near the printer improves efficiency and convenience. Organizational tools can even be 3D printed.

• Fire Extinguishing Ball: A fire extinguishing ball offers peace of mind by mitigating fire hazards associated with 3D printing. Mounting one above the printer provides proactive safety.

Replacement Parts

Having certain inexpensive components on hand can minimize downtime.

• Thermistors: These components function as thermometers for the hotend, ensuring proper temperatures. Keeping spares handy addresses temperature-related errors.

• Heater: While heaters don't require frequent replacement, having a spare is useful in troubleshooting hotend heating issues.

• Nozzles: Stocking up on replacement brass or hardened steel nozzles addresses print quality issues caused by wear. It is useful to have a set of hotend/nozzle combinations for closed-source machines for easy swaps.

• Fans: Brushless fans, particularly barrel cooling fans, can be damaged. Keeping spare fans of the correct size and voltage prepares for fan failures that could lead to print defects or clogs.

• Teflon (PTFE) Tubing: PTFE tubing guides filament to the hotend, minimizing tangling and ensuring smooth filament flow. Upgraded tubing can be beneficial, particularly for the AMS on some closed-source printers, where the tubing can wear out over time.

Investing in these spare parts can minimize downtime and address issues during 3D printing.

The failure of this print is caused by excess material oozing from the nozzle when no extrusion should occur.

Increase Retraction Settings

Retraction is a process where the printer pulls filament back during travel moves to minimize unwanted material discharge. Higher retraction settings are generally required when the distance between the extruder and the hotend increases. For example, Bowden setups demand significantly higher retraction values compared to direct drive extruders. Additionally, even among direct drive systems, a smaller gap between the extruder and hotend—such as in the Hemera system—reduces the need for high retraction and makes it easier to prevent blobs and stringing.

Material selection also plays a critical role. While PLA can often be tuned to print cleanly with minimal blobs or strings, PETG is much more prone to stringing, even with optimized settings. When printing with PETG, some post-processing with a razor blade or heat gun may be necessary to remove residual strings.

Increase Travel Speeds

Blobs and strings typically form when the hotend is moving without printing. Increasing travel speed reduces the duration of these non-print moves, thereby limiting the opportunity for material to ooze out. Provided the machine’s stepper motors and frame can accommodate higher speeds and accelerations, travel speeds can be significantly increased. For instance, settings of 200mm/s travel speed and 2,500mm/s² acceleration are effective on many CoreXY machines. However, if excessive vibration or skipped steps are observed, speeds should be reduced accordingly. Maximizing travel speed without compromising machine stability can greatly reduce stringing and blobs, and since no printing occurs during travel moves, overall print quality remains unaffected.

Play around with Coasting

Coasting replaces the last part of an extrusion path with a travel path. Replacing the last section of a print with a travel path will cause any oozed material to be used to print your part to reduce stringing. As you can see in the “Missing Layers and Holes in Prints” article, if you have coasting on when you do not have issues with stringing, it can result in holes on the side of your print.

That said, for the majority of inexpensive Bowden printers, you will likely see an improvement in print quality when you utilize Coasting. This is particularly true when printing in something like PETG which is more likely to cause stringing issues than PLA.

Coasting is still in the “Experimental” section on Cura, though other slicers have made it a standard setting. I expect it to move out of that “Experimental” section in coming updates to Cura.

Change Z Seam Alignment Changing your Z Seam Alignment will help more so with blobs than stringiness. It will be essentially impossible to avoid a minor seam on your print no matter what you do, but you can mitigate its effects by changing the Z Seam Alignment.

There is a setting for Z Seam Alignment where you can choose “Random”. I do notknow of a time when you would want to use a random Z Seam Alignment, but if you do choose it, you will likely see ugly little blobs all over your print. The best option for Z Seam Alignment seems to be “Sharpest Corner”, which hides these artifacts as best as your slicer can, though it will be near impossible to remove them entirely on a print that has no corners, such as a cylinder.

Decrease Minimum Layer Time

Many slicers set the "Minimum Layer Time" too high for most materials. This setting causes the hotend to pause after completing a layer faster than the specified minimum time. For example, if the minimum layer time is set to 10 seconds and a layer finishes in 5 seconds, the print head will pause for an additional 5 seconds before starting the next layer. Such pauses often result in oozing, leading to blobs and strings on the print. For most materials, a minimum layer time of 3 seconds is sufficient. As long as there is no curling of layers, maintaining a 3-second minimum is recommended.

Issues with Power Loss Recovery

Some printers offer power loss recovery by saving progress after each layer, allowing resumption after a power outage. However, this feature can introduce brief pauses as the printer saves progress, which can cause blobs to form throughout the print. Disabling power loss recovery eliminates these pauses and prevents the formation of blobs, though this also removes the ability to resume printing after a power outage. Not all manufacturers have implemented this feature optimally, so its use may negatively impact print quality.

Potential Over-Extrusion

Blobs may also result from over-extrusion. Excess material extruded from the nozzle not only affects the appearance of the print but can also create artifacts where surplus material accumulates. Careful calibration of extrusion settings is essential to prevent this issue.

Dry or Swap Materials

Poor-quality filament or material that has absorbed moisture can also increase the likelihood of blobs and stringing. Ensuring that filament is dry and of good quality helps minimize these print defects.

Summary of Fixes and Precautions •Increase your retraction settings. • Increase your travel speeds. • Turn on coasting for Bowden printers. • Try “Sharpest Corner” for your Z Seam Alignment to reduce the visibility of the seam. • Decrease your Minimum Layer Time so that your printer isn’t paused in place when it isn’t required. • Check to see if your printer is pausing after each layer due to its power loss recovery function. • Check to see if you are over extruding. • Dry or swap to new filament.

This article's failure is a result of excess material oozing out of your nozzle when no material should be extruded.

Read the "Material Science" article

As with most problems we cover, if you learn the science behind polymers then it is likely you can figure out how to solve the issue. The specific issue of "Oozing" is directly covered in this article.

Increase retraction settings

Retraction occurs when your printer head is travelling as to reduce any excess material coming out of the nozzle. Essentially you will need higher retraction settings the further your extruder is from your hotend.

This means that when you use a Bowden setup you will need much higher retraction settings than when you use a direct extruder. You will also need higher retraction settings if there is a small gap between your direct extruder and hotend versus something like the Hemera, which has nearly eliminated that gap entirely. The smaller the gap between your extruder and hotend, the less retraction you will need, and the easier it will be to avoid blobs and strings on your print.

It is also very important to understand the material you are using. you can print something in PLA without any blobs or stringiness by just honing in your settings, but it is just about impossible to avoid some strings when printing in PETG. If you plan on printing in PETG, you will likely have to use a razor blade or a heat gun to remove the minor amount of stringing that will be inevitable.

Increase travel speeds

Since these blobs and strings will only occur when the hotend is not actively printing, you can help reduce the amount of time the nozzle is travelling by increasing the travel speeds. So long as your stepper motors and frame can handle the increased acceleration and speeds, you can bump your travel speed way up.

You can have your travel speeds set to 200mm/s or higher with travel accelerations around 2,500mm/s/s or higher on CoreXY machines. If you experience a lot of machine rattling or hear any stepper motor skips, you will want to reduce these speeds. Many new printers such as those made by Bambu Lab will allow for even higher accelerations and travel speeds due to their vibration compensation.

The highest speeds you can go without experiencing issues will drastically help reduce these strings and blobs. Since you aren’t printing while the hotend is travelling, you should not experience any reduced quality in your prints with these high travel speeds.

Play around with Coasting

Coasting replaces the last part of an extrusion path with a travel path. Replacing the last section of a print with a travel path will cause any oozed material to be used to print your part to reduce stringing. As you can see in our “Missing Layers and Holes in Prints” article, if you have coasting on when you do not have issues with stringing, it can result in holes on the side of your print.

That said, for the majority of inexpensive Bowden printers, you will likely see an improvement in print quality when you utilize Coasting. This is particularly true when printing in something like PETG which is more likely to cause stringing issues than PLA.

Dry or swap material

When a material has absorbed too much moisture, there are a myriad of printing issues that can occur, including a hairy or stringy print. If you ever hear a "popping" or "cracking" noise when you are extruding, then your filament has likely absorbed too much moisture.

Dry out the material or swap to a new spool.

Summary of Fixes and Precautions

• Read "Material Science" article

• Increase retraction settings

• Increase travel speeds

• Try coasting especially if you are using a Bowden style extruder

• Dry or swap material

Previous Next

Elephant foot is an issue where the bottom few layers of your print are much thicker than the rest of your print. Almost as if the material was mushed out before correcting itself after a couple of layers.

This is a fairly straight forward issue to fix as there can only be a couple of causes.

Nozzle too close to build plate

When the first layer has the nozzle too close to the build plate, material is built up, smashed out, and presents itself as thicker than the dimensions of the actual part. Without enough distance between the nozzle and the build plate, this issue is going to be hard to avoid.

The elephant foot would course correct after about 5-10 layers, but the bottom section of your part will definitely be the incorrect dimensions.

Build plate too hot

Another reason this elephant foot failure can occur is from running your build plate too hot for the material being extruded. You should not print PLA with a build plate hotter than 60 degrees Celsius (sometimes only 50 degrees), but if you do, you can have a distorted bottom of your print.

This is because you are setting the build plate higher than the materials glass transition temperature. This means that the material on the bottom few layers becomes deformed as material is deposited on top of them. While it is easier to get good bed adhesion at these high bed temperatures, the deformation causes this elephant foot.

Make sure you are using the proper build plate temperature for the material you are using by referring to the manufacturer suggestions. If you know you have the proper Z-height and are operating within the suggested temperature range, and are still getting an elephant foot, you should attempt reducing your build plate temperature a bit further. Otherwise you can try out the next suggestion to make sure this problem is eliminated.

Use a raft

It is rare that we use a raft on my standard DIY machines, but if elephant foot is a consistent issue, a raft should make this failure disappear. A raft can cure having your nozzle too close to your build plate, and it can also fix having the build plate be too hot. This raft acts as a barrier between your print and the bed and should mean you no longer have any elephant foot issues. The photo above has before and after removing the raft on the same print, and below is this print with a raft (on the right) next to the version with the elephant foot issues (on the left).

Many printers are meant to use a raft standard in order to help with bed adhesion, and so long the settings are dialed in, a raft can be a great solution.

Negative initial layer horizontal expansion

This is a feature in Cura and may be called something different in other slicers. The initial layer horizontal expansion can cause the first layer to have a thicker or thinner expansion. Having a thick expansion can help with bed adhesion, but will increase your elephant foot issues. Setting this number negative can help to mitigate elephant foot on parts you are just having a ton of problems with.

We personally use a raft when this becomes an issue, but going this route should help as well.

Summary of Fixes and Precautions • Make sure your nozzle is not too close to the build plate • Confirm you are running your build plate within the suggested temperature range for the material used. • Utilize a raft to mitigate the problem entirely.

In this section we will walk through the common issues and challenges encountered in 3D printing with a material science approach. The idea behind the page is to provide more scientific knowledge to common issues in order to easily overcome them.

To begin, it is important to understand what material is being used in 3D printing: Polymers

Polymers are large molecules, or “macromolecules”, formed by large numbers of repeating units known as “monomers” in the polymerization process. The polymerization process bonds the monomer molecules together in a chemical reaction, forming the backbone of the polymer.

The type of polymers produced can vary depending on the chemistry and composition of monomer compounds that construct them. The links created between the monomers will be defined as covalent bonds.

Polymers can be divided into 2 families: thermosets and thermoplastics.

Thermosets are polymers that are irreversibly cured from a soft solid or viscous liquid pre-polymer into a solid polymer. The curing process is also known as cross-linking, which proceeds via a chemical reaction that connects all the monomers and pre-polymers to form a network structure. A cured thermoset can no longer be melted and usually is not thermally processable.

Thermoplastics are materials which become soft when heated and hard when cooled. Thermoplastics can be heated, molded and cooled multiple times with minimal change in their chemistry or mechanical properties. Unlike thermosets where each of the polymer chain is linked to others with a covalent bond, thermoplastics have their polymer chains linked with each other with weaker links which will be defined as non-covalent bonds.

Polymers can also be divided into two main categories depending on their micro-structure:

Amorphous and Semi-Crystalline

One of the ways that different thermoplastics can be identified is through their micro- structure, which can define the properties and behavior of the polymer.

Amorphous

Amorphous polymers are identified for not having a long-range ordering. This means that the polymer chains are randomly oriented.

Generally speaking, clear plastics are often made with amorphous polymers, such as PMMA, PS and PC.

Semi-Crystalline

Semi-crystalline polymers are identified for having an ordered structure with structural domains known as “crystals”.

Crystals are an ordered and tightly packed group of polymer chains. Crystalline domains and amorphous domains co-exist in semi-crystalline polymers, thus the “semi”. The proportion of crystallized areas is defined by the degree of crystallinity. A specific characteristic of semi-crystalline polymers is that this degree of crystallinity can highly affect their mechanical and thermal properties.

Before jumping into these phenomena, we need to clarify an important point regarding printing speed and printing temperature.

Usually printing temperature is defined as the heat block temperature (in ˚C) and the printing speed will always define the print head speed when printing (in mm/s).

In this page we will refer to more useful factors for us such as the extrusion temperature and the extrusion rate:

Extrusion Temperature: The temperature at which the plastic exits the nozzle (in ˚C)

Extrusion Rate: The rate at which the plastic is extruded from the nozzle (in mm3/s)

The extrusion temperature can be increased using different factors:

Increase the printing temperature, reduce the printing speed, reduce the layer height, or increase the nozzle heated chamber length.

The extrusion rate can be decreased using different factors:

Reduce the printing speed, reduce the layer height, or reduce extrusion thickness.

Warping

In 3D printing, occasionally we will encounter a part that deforms on the printer, curls or lifts up from the bed because of what is known as warping. This is caused by the accumulation of stress created by the 3d printing process.

The origin of the internal stress is still under debate, and depending on your 3D printer configuration, many factors may be contributing to the as-built internal stress. Here is one hypothesis which should be considered for all FDM machines:

During the extrusion process the polymer is forced through a die (small hole/nozzle), and during this step the polymer chains will be stretched to a stress state, then stuck to the build plate or a previous layer of plastic. This stress will slowly be released over time, however if the temperature does not allow the polymer to freely move enough to release the stress, or if the layer is not well stuck to the bed or the build plate, the accumulation of this stress throughout the layers will force the part to macroscopically deform.

Warping and cracking is always representative of this accumulation of stress exceeding the bond between the bed or layer adhesion.

As a result, we have three ways to prevent warping/cracking:

1. Give polymers enough energy to move freely and release their internal stress.

Most of the stress release happens right after the extrusion, indeed the material will be extruded at a high temperature then cooled down below Tg. It is during this time above Tg that the polymer will release most of its internal stress, however if this time is too short, it will not have time to reach equilibrium. Increasing this time period is a way to reduce warping.

This time period can be increased with the following ways:

Increasing the extrusion temperature (PT):

Increasing the room or chamber temperature (RT):

Decreasing the cooling rate:

2. Improve bed or layer adhesion

The accumulation of stress will tend to lift up the layer from another layer (delamination) or the bed (warping). However, if the bed/layer adhesion is strong enough to resist the deformation, the polymer will be able to release its stress without deforming the part. The bed adhesion can be improved by using adequate bed surfaces and coating.

Before talking about how to improve layer adhesion, let us have a look at what layer adhesion is:

Layer adhesion is possible thanks to the entanglement between polymer chains from one layer to another.

This entanglement is possible when both layers are heated up above Tg and both layers have their polymer chains moving freely, and through this movement the chains entangle with each other.

To improve the layer adhesion, we have to increase the number of entanglements between the polymer chains at the layer interface. The number of entanglements can be increased by increasing the time where both layers are in contact with each other with a temperature above Tg. As we can see this is the same solution as number 1. However, an extra factor which can improve the layer adhesion is increasing the contact surface between the layers by increasing the extrusion width.

3. Reduce stress creation

This third solution to solve warping relies on reducing the root cause of warping: internal stress.

As mentioned earlier the stress is created by forcing the material through a die which will created a velocity curve which will stretch and oriented the polymer chains. Reducing the stress creation rely on flattening this velocity profile. This velocity profile can be flattened by increasing the nozzle size, reducing the extrusion rate, decreasing material viscosity (by increasing the printing temperature) or coating the internal nozzle surface with low flow resistant surface.

The above explanation of warping can be applied to amorphous and semi-crystalline polymers. However, semi-crystalline polymers face an additional source of stress: crystallization.

Indeed, when printing, the part will undergo crystallization when cooling down creating small crystals which, as ordered structure, take less space and will force the part to shrink. This is why Nylon materials will warp even though the build plate may only be 45 degrees. If the crystals are formed too quickly, each layer will have small crystals creating a lot of stress per layers and the accumulation of this stress will macroscopically deform the part.

Now that we have a better understanding of the material structure we will dive into its thermal properties to understand its behavior as a function of the temperature. In order to do that, we first need to define the test which will reveal the thermal properties of a polymer: DSC.

DSC definition

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is a type of thermal analysis in which a specimen is placed within a chamber and the amount of heat required to continually increase the internal temperature of the chamber is measured. This form of analysis is designed to pinpoint the temperatures at which the specimen undergoes certain state transitions e.g. Glass transition, crystallization, and melting, by documenting how a polymer reacts to the gradual heat increase via its level of energy absorption and release.

Glass transition temperature (Tg)

The glass transition temperature can be found in all polymers, it refers to the temperature at which a polymers physical state transitions from glass (hard & brittle) to rubbery (soft & flexible). The Tg is usually used to highlight the highest working temperature of an amorphous polymer.

Crystallization temperature (Tc)

Crystallization happens between Tg and Tm (melting temperature). It is the process of polymer molecules aligning to form crystals. The crystallization temperature is the point at which the polymers crystalize at the highest speed.

Melting temperature (Tm)

The melting temperature is the point at which the crystalline domains of a semi- crystalline polymer starts to melt/deform. Amorphous polymers do not have a defined melting temperature.

Decomposition temperature (Td)

The decomposition temperature is the temperature at which a material begins to deteriorate, meaning that the backbone of the polymer begins to break down.

Notes about the above graph and definitions

A simple way to understand it is that the heat(energy) injected in the chamber will be used to increase the internal temperature, however if the sample (polymer) inside the chamber absorbs some thermal energy for structural realignment, more heat will be needed to be injected to continuously increase the temperature at a constant rate.

Referring to the graph below, at the beginning a constant amount of heat is applied to the system to increase the temperature at a certain rate. At Tg (glass transition temperature), we can notice that more heat is required to increase the temperature at this same rate, this is because the sample will absorb some thermal energy to break its non-covalent bonds and make the polymers move more freely (resulting in the material becoming soft).

After this phase transition, the sample will have a higher heat capacity, so the system will still require a constant amount of heat to be injected to increase the system temperature at the same rate, but this amount will be higher than before Tg. The energy continuously absorbed by the sample will make the polymer microstructure move more and more freely (excite them). At Tc (crystallization temperature), the polymer chain of the sample will have enough free movement to form crystals. The sample will then release energy (heat) which means that we need to inject less heat to the system to increase its temperature.

The reason is that the crystals structure (a more ordered structure) is coming from a more disordered structure, which will require less energy, thus the release of the extra energy. Once the crystals are formed, no more energy will be released from the sample to the system. However, soon after creating the crystals, at Tm (melting temperature), the polymer chains will continue gaining energy(movement) which will excite them too much and make them break the crystal structure, thus absorbing energy from the system, thus needing to inject more energy in the system to continue increasing the temperature at a constant rate. After breaking all the crystals, the sample will not require any additional energy from the system. This explains the two opposite spikes at Tc and Tm. At Td (decomposition temperature), the sample will start to decompose, meaning that covalent bonds will start to be broken, the sample will lose its heat capacity and thus less heat will be needed to increase the system temperature.

Now that the thermal transitions and behavior of polymers in function of the temperature are better understood, we can use this knowledge to explain some of the 3D printing phenomena:

Polymaker has been working hard to improve sustainility in 3D printing.

• ISCC Certification: Polymaker has obtained ISCC (International Sustainability & Carbon Certification), demonstrating a commitment to sustainable sourcing and traceability in the supply chain. Read more

• Environmental Protection Review: Polymaker publishes environmental protection reviews, outlining ongoing efforts to reduce environmental impact in production and operations. 2021 Review

• Recycled Packaging: All Polymaker filament is now packaged in fully recycled cardboard spools and boxes, minimizing plastic waste and supporting a circular economy. Read more

• Certifications:

  • ISO 9001:2015 (Quality Management System) certificate

  • RoHS (Restriction of Hazardous Substances) declarations

  • REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation, and Restriction of Chemicals) declarations

  • Conflict Minerals Statement declaration

  • Animal-Derived Component-Free (ADCF) declaration

  • PAHs, TSCA, ISO10993 and more.

• Material Sustainability: Products like PolyTerra™ (Now Called Panchroma Matte™) are made from renewable bioplastics and use recycled packaging.

• Waste Minimization: Polymaker has switched all products to 100% recycled spools and actively reviews environmental protection practices.

Before closing this section, it can be useful to also learn about the different mechanical and thermal properties which can define a polymer. These 3 tests can determine how “strong” a material is depending on the application you require from your print.

Let us first review the 3 main mechanical tests:

Tensile testing

The tensile testing is where a polymer specimen is subjected to tension until it breaks. The test can be used to determine a specimen’s tensile strength, Young’s modulus, and elongation at break.

Charpy impact test

The Charpy impact test is the process of measuring the amount of energy upon impact that is required to fracture a test specimen. This test is conducted by fixing an appropriate polymer specimen in place and releasing a pendulum with a set mass at a set height to collide with the test specimen.

Three-point flexural test

Three-point flexural test is the measurement of a specimen’s resistance to deformation under a gradual load. The test samples are subjected to significant tensile and compressive stresses in their plane in addition to shear stresses. This test can be used to determine the bending strength and bending modulus.

Each of these tests will give important data which will define the material performance:

The tensile strength will give a graph similar to the below one:

Tensile strength

Tensile strength characterizes the maximum stress required to pull the specimen to the point where it yields or breaks. Tensile strength at yield measures the stress at which a test specimen yields to stress (known as necking), tensile strength at break measures the stress at which a test specimen breaks, and the ultimate tensile strength is the maximum between both. This allows us to understand the limit of a materials strength and its behavior when under stress.

Elongation at break

Elongation at break measures the deformation ratio between initial length and increased length right before breakage. This allows us the see the amount of stretching a material can endure before breaking.

Young’s modulus

Young’s modulus measures the resistance of polymers to deformation under stress along a single axis. Young’s modulus can be used to estimate the stiffness of structures made by the material.

The bending strength will give a graph similar to the below one:

Bending modulus

Bending modulus is a local physical property that is computed as the ratio of stress to strain in flexural deformation. The Bending modulus has similarities to Young’s modulus as it tests the polymers ability to resist deformation.

Bending strength

Bending strength represents the highest stress experienced within the material at its point of yield or break.

Charpy impact strength

Charpy impact strength tests the amount of impact force or energy (kJ/m2) that is required to fracture the test specimen.

Now let us review the thermal properties:

Heat deflection temperature

Heat deflection temperature is the measure of the temperature at which a polymer undergoes a certain amount of deformation. The test is conducted using a specific load, while steadily increasing the temperature by 2 °C/min and measuring the temperature once the displacement of the contact sensor of the specimen reaches 10mm.

Vicat softening temperature

Whilst comparable to HDT, the Vicat softening temperature differs by providing a testing method that simulates the point at which temperature softens the material’s physical properties enough for an external object under a set pressure to penetrate the outside surface of the specimen by 1mm.

Melt index

Melt index characterizes the flow behavior of a polymer under a set pressure and temperature. This is achieved by extruding the polymer and measuring the total weight of the extrudate in a set time-period. The more material that extrudes, the increased weight and therefore the lower viscosity.

In this part we will differentiate two kind of oozing depending on the root cause.

The first root cause is oozing created by the extruded filament being linked with the material inside the nozzle. The extruded filament will then force the material inside the nozzle to stretch out of the nozzle as the nozzle is moving to another location. We will rename this phenomenon as stringing (because of this string created).

Polymers with a high molecular interaction, or polymers which have absorbed moisture tend to have this issue.

A simple way to solve this stringing issue is to cut the extruded filament from the material in the nozzle by performing a wiping movement with the nozzle before moving the nozzle to another location.

The second root cause is the actual material oozing created by the residual pressure and gravity which will force the material out of the nozzle over time.

As mentioned, the above 3 factors will define the amount of material oozing out of the nozzle:

Residual pressure, gravity and time.

In order to reduce oozing, we will need to decrease or counter each of them:

Residual pressure:

Residual pressure is a result of the printer building up pressure within the nozzle to extrude at a certain volumetric speed. This pressure can never be completely discharged from the nozzle over a very short period of time and therefore the material will keep extruding slightly. To decrease the residual pressure, we can increase the retraction settings (distance, speed), increase coasting (using the residual pressure to finish the layer), decrease the extrusion rate (need less pressure to extrude) or increase the printing temperature (need less pressure to extrude).

Gravity

Gravity will always pull the filament out of the nozzle, and if the gravitational force is stronger than the flow resistance of the plastic against the nozzle’s internal surface and shear within the plastic, it will ooze out. Note that the flow resistance between the internal surface of the nozzle and the plastic can be increased by increasing the die L/D ratio (L: length of the die capillary, D: diameter of the nozzle hole). The shear within the plastic can be increased by lowering the temperature of the nozzle (thus the stand-by temperature in several dual extrusion 3D printers).

Time

The amount of material oozing from the nozzle also depends on the amount of time the nozzle is inactive. The greater the duration, the larger amount of material there is. This time can be significantly reduced by having high travel speed, acceleration and reasonably high jerk settings. The material will not have time to ooze out before reaching the other part of the model. Having a high travel speed and acceleration should not affect ghosting as it would with increasing the print speed and acceleration. However, for dual extrusion printing, this factor cannot really be changed.

Generic print temperature ranges for various materials are as follows:

• PLA: 180°C – 220°C

• ABS: 235°C – 265°C

• ASA: 230°C – 255°C

• PETG: 245°C – 2552°C

• Nylon 910: 245°C – 252°C

It's important to note that these settings may need adjustment depending on the specific manufacturer and the 3D printer being used. For consistent printing above 240°C, and for any printing above 260°C, an all-metal hotend is necessary.

The Role of Temperature in 3D Printing

Temperature is a critical variable in 3D printing, influencing material flow, layer adhesion, and surface finish. Precise control ensures optimal extrusion, bed adhesion, and structural integrity. Key components like the hotend, nozzle, and heated bed rely on temperature stability to produce consistent results. Misconfigured temperatures can lead to warping, clogs, or surface defects such as matte finishes or blobs.

How Temperature Affects Print Quality

Surface Finish

• Glossy vs. Matte: Higher extrusion temperatures typically yield glossy surfaces, as molten filament flows smoothly and solidifies uniformly. Lower temperatures or rapid cooling create matte finishes due to incomplete melting and increased shear forces during extrusion.

• Speed Impact: High-speed printing reduces filament residence time in the hotend, preventing full melting and introducing shear stresses. This leads to matte textures unless temperatures are adjusted upward or cooling is minimized.

Layer Adhesion and Strength

• Optimal Range: Printing within a material’s recommended temperature range ensures strong interlayer bonding. Excessively high temperatures degrade polymers (e.g., hydrolysis in PETG), while low temperatures weaken layer adhesion.

• Hotend Design: Efficient hotends maintain consistent melt zones, reducing thermal fluctuations that cause uneven extrusion.

Material Behavior

• PLA: Prints best at 190–220°C; excessive heat causes stringing and potential heat creep clogging, while low temps result in poor adhesion.

• PETG: Requires 220–250°C but is prone to moisture absorption and degradation at high temperatures.

• ABS: Needs 230–260°C and a heated bed (~100°C) to prevent warping.

Hotend Mechanics and Temperature Control

The hotend is responsible for melting filament uniformly. Its components include:

1. Heating Block: Heats the nozzle to target temperatures.

2. Thermistor/Thermocouple: Monitors temperature for feedback control.

3. Heat Break: Isolates the melt zone to prevent jams.

4. Nozzle: Determines extrusion width and influences flow dynamics.

Challenges at High Speeds:

• Residence Time: Filament must spend sufficient time in the melt zone to reach the target temperature. High extrusion rates shorten this period, leading to under-melting and matte finishes.

• Shear Forces: Rapid extrusion increases friction between the filament and nozzle walls, causing surface irregularities.

Balancing Speed and Temperature for Desired Finishes

High-Speed Printing Adjustments

1. Increase Nozzle Temperature: Compensate for reduced residence time (e.g., +5–10°C for PLA).

2. Reduce Cooling: Lower part-cooling fan speeds to allow slower solidification, promoting gloss.

3. Optimize Flow Rate: Calibrate extrusion multipliers to prevent under- or over-extrusion.

Slicer Settings for Glossy Surfaces

• Speed Reduction: Slower outer perimeters improve melt quality.

• Temperature Towers: Test a range of temperatures to identify the optimal setting for gloss and strength.

Common Pitfalls and Solutions

1. Overheating:

   • Symptoms: Stringing, oozing, degraded material properties, clogs.

   • Fix: Lower nozzle temperature and ensure adequate cooling.

2. Under temperature:

   • Symptoms: Poor layer adhesion, matte surfaces, extrusion skips.

   • Fix: Increase nozzle temperature or reduce print speed.

3. Inconsistent Temperatures:

   • Causes: Poor PID tuning, faulty thermistor, or drafts.

   • Fix: Recalibrate PID settings and enclose the printer.

Advanced Considerations

• Thermal Management: Enclosures stabilize ambient temperatures for ABS and other warp-prone materials.

• Nozzle Geometry: High-flow nozzles improve melt efficiency for fast printing.

Ghosting in printing essentially refers to an “echo” where details in your print can be seen outside where they should be, which may also be called “ringing”.

The number one reason this occurs is having your acceleration and jerk settings too high. This is extremely common in 3D printing, especially since many printer manufacturers will auto set the default value for these numbers too high, since it will allow them to advertise faster printing times.

New printers that utilize "input shaper" or "vibration compensation" will calculate a way to compensate for these high vibrations, which is why they are able to print so fast without this ghosting effect.

A part with some minor ghosting is still entirely useable, so printer manufacturers may get away with calling something a successful print that we as makers would be upset with.

Keep in mind this issue should be reduced on a CoreXY or Delta machine, since the increased weight of moving the print bed on Cartesians will make this problem worse.

Reducing jerk and acceleration

As you can tell from the photo above at the top of this page, there is a drastic difference in ghosting between the two examples. These parts were printed with every slicer setting being the same, except for Jerk and Acceleration.

Acceleration is pretty self-explanatory, but jerk refers to something you may not know unless you are involved in the 3D printing sphere. Jerk refers to the initial speed after a directional change. After stopping and starting again, your printer will start instantaneous at your jerk speed before then accelerating to your print speed.

The failed print on the left had accelerations of 3,000 m/s ² and a jerk of 30 mm/s while the print on the right had accelerations of 500 m/s² and a jerk of 12 mm/s – all other settings being the same. It has become clear to me that jerk and acceleration are the key factors when it comes to reducing ghosting.

The print on the left took 1 hour 36 minutes and the print on the right took 1 hour 50 minutes, so it is clear you will need to wait longer for your print to finish, but it is definitely worth it to have the quality you expect.

Again, new printers such as those made by Bambu are meant to calibrate for this increased accelerations and jerk as to not cause this ghosting effect.

Controlling jerk and acceleration right in Cura

This allows you to change these numbers without having flash your firmware. In Cura, this is located under the “Speed” section. If you prefer not to use Cura, then you will have to check within your slicer if this option is available. Nearly every slicer now has the ability to tweak accerlation settings.

You can also find out your current acceleration numbers by typing “M503” into Repetier Host or Octoprint, which will read out all of your current firmware settings. Almost all slicers now allow for acceleration and jerk controls, so this flashing of firmware shouldn’t really be needed anymore.

Some printers even have the ability to change your top accelerations and jerk settings on the LCD screen.

Add small cushions under printer feet

This is a very minor, but easy addition to your printer to help reduce ghosting. Part of the problem with ghosting is the rattling that occurs within the printer without anywhere to disperse it. If you have a very sturdy printer on a sturdy print area, most of the rattling ends up locating within the machine.

An easy fix is to grab some small foam cubes and place them under your printer feet. This will help to disperse vibrations through the machine into the pads, allowing you to print higher acceleration and jerk speeds with reduced ghosting.

Having a lighter carriage

The lighter the carriage, the less ghosting you will experience. This means ghosting will be more of an issue on a direct extruder than a Bowden, due to the increased weight of adding a stepper motor. We will still always prefer direct extruders to Bowden due to the extra amount of materials available to print, but one of the benefits to Bowden is the reduced weight.

You can also reduce the weight on your carriage via a smaller/lighter extruder stepper and/or carriage. The Hemera hotend/extruder is a great setup, but if you own one you will notice just how heavy it is. This weight might be too much for your printer, meaning you really need to reduce your acceleration and jerk to remove ghosting.

Belts too tight

Having belts too loose can cause Z-wobble (or even layer shifts), but going too tight can cause ghosting. There is no specific standard for how tight a belt should be, but I generally say they should be tight enough to have no droop and be springy to the touch. If they are so tight it is actually stretching out the belt, it can cause a reduction in dampening and add to your ghosting problems.

Having too tight of a frame

You almost always want to have a well-built, strong frame. Unfortunately, if you do not have any dampeners for your axis or vibration compensation/input shaper, this means that the vibrations from your machine won’t be as dispersed, resulting in increased ghosting.

Having this be too loose can result in Z-wobble. This means you are going to be trying to find the happy medium where you get no Z-wobble and no ghosting, something fairly hard to achieve (and a reason CoreXY is preferred over Cartesian).

You don’t want to go loosening screws on your machine in order to allow more dampening, which means it may be difficult to do much about this, other than adding cushions below the printer.

Summary of Fixes and Precautions • Reduce your acceleration and jerk via Cura or your preferred slicing software. • If not available in your slicing software or on your LCD screen, reduce via marlin and re-flash. • Add small foam cushions below your printer feet to help disperse vibrations. • Reduce weight on carriage if possible. • Have dampening for your axis if possible. • These problems are less of an issue on CoreXY and Delta machines

The issue of layer bulges normally only happen with older style printers with a single leadscrew, though we assume it could be possible on many machine types.

There seems to be one main culprit: a leadscrew that isn’t perfectly 90 degrees.

This is due to either a misplacement of the z-stepper motor or misplacement of the area the leadscrew is threaded into the mount, or both. This causes the leadscrew to be slightly angled from a perfect 90 degrees. There are a few solutions to this problem:

Remove Z-hop

This is likely the smartest solution for most inexpensive printers. Once Z-hop is removed, those layer bulges went away entirely on older style, single leadscrew printers. Inexpensive older machines should not have a Z-hop and should be reserved for well-built machines or Delta printers.

In the above photo are two prints that have exactly the same settings on an Ender 3 V2, but the one on the left has a Z-hop and the one on the right does not. This squished layer happens because it is more difficult for your stepper motor to raise in the Z-direction than to lower. When you have a Z-hop of 0.2mm, your printer may only raise 0.19mm, then drop back down 0.2mm, causing a squished layer.

Luckily Cura and other slicers allow for a setting called “Avoid printed parts when travelling” which should nearly remove the concerns of nozzle drag or knocking a part off. If you have that checked (it is in the “Travel” section on Cura), then there shouldn’t be much of an issue.

This is definitely the easiest fix for this layer bulge problem and what may work the best for you.

Check leadscrew to see if it is bent

Take your Z-leadscrew and lay it on a flat table. Roll it back and forth and see if the rod is straight. Any bends will be noticeable when rolling. If this is bent or curved, then unfortunately there isn’t much you can do other than order a new leadscrew. Just make sure to purchase the same size and pitch as your current leadscrew, then upon replacement you should hopefully notice a big difference.

Clean and lubricate your Z-rod

As mentioned with mandatory maintenance, you should keep all of your rods lubricated. We would recommend removing the leadscrew, then cleaning it entirely in isopropyl alcohol to remove all the gunk.

Then grab some white lithium grease, or your preferred lubricant, and cover the entire threaded rod. This will allow for easier movement and less likelihood this issue will occur.

Check to see if leadscrew falls straight into Z-stepper coupler

Loosen your stepper motor coupler and lift the threaded rod out of it. Raise your carriage to at least the midpoint, then thread the leadscrew down and see where it falls into the coupler. If your leadscrew doesn’t go straight into the coupler, this can cause your leadscrew to not be perpendicular to the build plate and lead to layer bulges.

It is fairly common on Ender 3’s for your leadscrew to line up with the back of your coupler, as if your stepper motor needs to be pushed back a few mm. This can be fixed by adding a spacer to the stepper motor mount, so that your stepper is set back slightly. There are new mounts you can print for your stepper on Thingiverse, or you can add your own spacer.

If your leadscrew hits to the right or left of your coupler, this may require a new stepper motor mount that is adjustable. With these mounts you can adjust your stepper left or right to line up properly with the leadscrew.

If that doesn’t work, or you would like to try another method, check the next step.

Purchase a Spider Coupler

Spider couplers allow for compensation if your leadscrew doesn’t line up perfectly. You can get a set of two for about $15 and are well worth it if you are having this issue.

Bend the Z-Carriage to be 90 degrees

One of the main problems is that the mount that holds your Z-leadscrew nut and attaches it to your frame is slightly bent and not a proper 90 degree angle. We have watched videos where individuals actually just hammer and bend the carriage back to the proper angle, though I have not personally tried this method. A video titled “Creality Ender-3 Z-Axis Alignment Correction” by Ronald Walters on YouTube goes over this exact method. This should result in fixing the problem, though it may be hard to visually see if you are at a proper 90 degrees without tools that will help.

You can also just reprint the entire body. We tried this by printing the design by hunterius_prime on Thingiverse, though this unfortunately did not solve the issues.

Add a second leadscrew

This costs a bit of money, but adding a second leadscrew can compensate for any issues with your other leadscrew. Having two leadscrews is a good upgrade to have regardless, so it’s something to think about. That said, the main issue is due to the manufacturer not having the leadscrew lined up perfectly through the mount and the stepper motor.

This means that the only real solution is to fix this alignment. Adding a spider coupler or printing a new mount for your stepper isn’t a perfect solution, though it may work. This can be very difficult because it is hard to even see if the leadscrew isn’t a perfect 90 degree angle with your naked eye, meaning it is hard to tell how far or in which direction you need to change these things.

If you are able to tell how your leadscrew isn’t angled properly, then you can fairly easily design a new mount for your z-stepper motor, making the leadscrew line up perfectly with your mount.

Add an anti-backlash nut

If your leadscrew isn’t the issue, you can try adding an anti-backlash nut. One individual we spoke to was able to completely fix his problems by doing this. So if your leadscrew is properly lined up and not bent, then it may be worth buying this inexpensive item to prevent your carriage from dropping when it shouldn’t.

All of the above said, the easiest solution is just to remove your Z-hop. Removing the Z-hop and adding “Avoid Printed Parts when Traveling” will drastically improve your print quality if you are having bulge issues.

Summary of Fixes and Precautions

• Remove your Z-hop. This is the simplest solution and should help a lot. Make sure you turn on “Avoid printed parts when traveling” in your slicer to prevent parts being knocked over. • If your leadscrew is bent or curved, you will need to purchase a new one. • Clean and lubricate your leadscrew. • Compensate for a leadscrew that doesn’t line up perfectly with your coupler by either adding a spacer to your stepper mount, printing an adjustable stepper mount, or purchasing a spider coupler. • Bend the metal carriage that holds onto your nut that attaches the leadscrew to your X frame so that it is a 90 degree angle. • Add a second leadscrew which may be a little costly, but will help compensate and overall make your printer better. • If your leadscrew is nice and straight and lined up and you are still having this issue, an anti-backlash nut may help.

Our nylon material specifications include mechanical properties and data for both "wet" and "dry" conditions. This dual presentation is necessary due to nylon's highly hygroscopic nature, meaning it readily absorbs moisture from its surroundings.

You may be aware that you need to keep your nylon filament dry while on the spool to get proper printing. When your nylon filament absorbs too much moisture, you will hear "popping" and "cracking" when extruding and your print will have a lot of very hard to diagnose defects.

Just as your nylon is expected to absorb moisture while on the spool, it will also absorb moisture as a final print.

The process is inevitable as moisture is absorbed by the print by the surrounding humidity in the air. This means that your nylon print will grow slightly post annealing as it absorbs moisture. This also means your nylon print will get less rigid but will also become more impact resistant.

Affect on Material Properties:

You will notice that all properties related to stiffness and impact resistance will change. When wet - the printed part will have lower tensile strength and a lower bending modulus, but it will also have a higher Charpy impact strength and higher elongation at break.

Affects on dimensional accuracy:

Since your part will be absorbing moisture - it means it will "grow". How much it grows will depend heavily on which nylon you print with, how large your part is, and how dense your part is. Below are some test results by the Polymaker team:

40mm Cube, 100% Infill, after annealing, before moisture conditioning:

And then the same print after moisture conditioning:

In the above example - you will see that after annealing the parts shrunk slightly, which is why you see a negative number. When you anneal your print, you will dry out any moisture that may remain in the print, causing the print to very minorly shrink.

You will then notice that after moisture conditioning, most prints grew past their original size, with the exception of Fiberon™ PA12-CF10. This is expected due to the moisture that is being absorbed, and also another reason to try Fiberon™ PA12-CF10 if your goal is to use a strong nylon blend but maintain your dimensions.

Unfortunately we are unable to give a "standard" for dimensional change for each material since it will heavily depend on your models geometry, size, and infill density, but you will need to factor in these dimensional changes if your goal is to have a print with the most precise dimensions possible.

How to Moisture Condition

All of our nylon options should be annealed before moisture conditioning. Annealing is very important to do with our nylons due to our Warp Free Technology.

Annealing will dry your print out, so if you anneal after moisture conditioning, you will just need to moisture condition again.

There are a few options to moisture condition:

1. Place print in humid climate for 48 hours. This means using a humidifier in a small room where the print is located. Another method you can use is keeping the print in a Tupperware container locked with a wet sponge. The wet sponge will slowly release moisture and the print will slowly absorb it.

2. Submerge your print in water, and then let sit out for 48 hours. After you dunk your print in water it will absorb more moisture than equilibrium with the environment, so it will slowly dry out. It would be smart to leave a wet print out for 48 hours for it to equalize.

3. Leave your print out for 2 weeks in the environment. This process means you basically do not need to do anything other than to leave the print out. The print will slowly absorb moisture from the humidity in the air until it becomes properly moisture conditioned.

Some individuals have attempted to prevent moisture conditioning by spraying with automotive spray paint, though we have very limited information on this. Generally, moisture conditioning a nylon part will be inevitable over time.

Core Concepts in Speed Configuration

Print speed in 3D printing is governed by hardware capabilities, material properties, and slicer settings. Key factors include nozzle diameter, hotend flow capacity, calibrations, and printer kinematics (e.g., Cartesian, CoreXY, Delta). Balancing speed and quality requires understanding how these elements interact.

Machine Kinematics and Speed Potential

CoreXY vs. Cartesian vs. Delta

• CoreXY: Uses synchronized belt systems for lightweight printhead movement, enabling high accelerations (3000+ mm/s²) and speeds up to 300 mm/s with minimal artifacts.

• Delta: Lightweight arms allow rapid directional changes, ideal for tall prints but limited by Bowden extruders in budget models.

• Cartesian: Traditional bed-flinger designs struggle with inertia at high speeds but remain reliable for detail-oriented prints.

Key Insight: CoreXY and Delta systems excel in speed due to reduced moving mass, while Cartesian printers prioritize simplicity over velocity.

Slicer Speed Settings Explained

Critical Parameters

1. Default Print Speed:

   • Governs overall extrusion movements (typically 40–100 mm/s).

   • Adjust incrementally (+5–10 mm/s) to avoid under-extrusion or layer shifts.

2. Section-Specific Speeds:

   • Infill: Match default speed for efficiency.

   • Outer Walls: Reduce to 50–75% of default speed for smoother surfaces.

   • First Layer: Set to 15–25 mm/s (or 50% of default) to ensure adhesion.

   • Travel: Increase to 150+ mm/s (Bowden systems handle higher speeds better).

3. Volumetric Flow Rate:

   • Formula: Flow Rate (mm³/s)=Nozzle Diameter (mm)×Layer Height (mm)×Speed (mm/s)Flow Rate (mm³/s)=Nozzle Diameter (mm)×Layer Height (mm)×Speed (mm/s).

   • Example: A 0.4mm nozzle at 0.2mm layer height and 100 mm/s requires 8 mm³/s.

   • Hotend Limits: Standard V6 hotends max at ~12 mm³/s, while Volcano-style reach 25+ mm³/s.

Hardware Limitations and Solutions

Extruder Types

• Geared Extruders: Enable faster speeds (e.g., 300× nozzle diameter) by improving grip on filament.

• Direct Drive: Better for flexible filaments but adds mass, limiting acceleration.

Nozzle and Layer Height

• Rule of Thumb: Print speed ≤ 100× nozzle diameter (e.g., 40 mm/s for 0.4mm nozzle). This is just a starting point for stock older style printers, newer machines with good components can print much faster.

• Layer Height: Mid-range heights (~50% nozzle diameter) balance speed and detail.

Acceleration and Jerk Settings

• Acceleration: Controls how quickly the printer reaches target speeds.

  • High Values (3000+ mm/s²): Reduce print time but risk ghosting/ringing.

  • New Printers: New machines with vibration compensation can print at up to 20,000mm/s² due to reducing this ghosting/ringing effect.

  • Low Values: Improve surface quality at the cost of speed.

• Jerk: Governs instant speed changes during direction shifts.

  • Typical Range: 10–20 mm/s (higher for Delta/CoreXY).

Note: Small prints may not benefit from high speeds due to limited acceleration distance.

Practical Workflow for Speed Optimization

1. Baseline Calibration:

   • Start with manufacturer-recommended speeds for your material.

   • Print a temperature tower and speed test model to identify limits.

2. Prioritize Sections:

   • Maximize infill and travel speeds.

   • Slow outer walls and first layers for quality.

3. Monitor Volumetric Flow:

   • Ensure slicer settings align with hotend capabilities (e.g., Bambu Lab X1C handles 32 mm³/s).

4. Adjust Mechanics:

   • Tighten belts and lubricate rods to reduce rattling at high speeds.

   • Upgrade to high-flow nozzles (e.g., CHT, Volcano) for demanding materials.

Troubleshooting Common Issues

• Under-Extrusion: Increase hotend temperature or reduce speed.

• Ghosting/Ringing: Lower acceleration/jerk or install input shaping (Klipper).

• Adhesion Failures: Slow first-layer speed and increase bed temperature.

Cooling settings directly influence print quality, structural integrity, and material behavior. Proper configuration ensures optimal solidification of layers, minimizes defects in overhangs/bridges, and balances speed with part durability. Active cooling fans are critical for materials like PLA but require careful calibration to avoid warping or delamination in temperature-sensitive filaments.

Cooling Requirements by Material

PLA and Cooling-Dependent Materials

• Active Cooling: Essential for clean overhangs, bridges, and surface quality.

• Fan Speed: Typically 100% for most PLA prints to prevent layer curling and sagging.

• Exceptions: Large, thick PLA parts may tolerate lower fan speeds (70–80%) to reduce warping.

High-Warping Materials (ABS, ASA, PC)

• Cooling Strategy: Minimal or no active cooling for medium/large parts to maintain layer adhesion.

• Exceptions: Enable cooling (20–50%) for small features (e.g., pins, thin walls) to prevent deformation.

• Enclosure Use: Maintains ambient temperature, reducing reliance on active cooling.

Flexible Filaments (TPU, TPE)

• Cooling Approach: Limited cooling (0–30%) to prevent nozzle jams and ensure layer bonding.

Slicer-Specific Cooling Parameters

Fan Activation and Layer Control

• Initial Layers: Disable cooling for the first 0.5–0.7mm to enhance bed adhesion.

• Variable Fan Speeds:

  • Bridges/Overhangs: 100% fan speed for rapid solidification.

  • Dense Infill Areas: Reduce fan speed (50–70%) to minimize warping.

Minimal Layer Time

• Function: Pauses between layers to allow cooling if print time falls below a threshold.

  • Typical Range: 5–15 seconds (lower for PLA; higher for ABS in enclosures).

  • Lift Head: Raises the nozzle during pauses, reducing heat transfer but increasing stringing.

Layer Height and Cooling Efficiency

• Thin Layers (0.1–0.2mm): Improve overhang quality by reducing unsupported material.

• Thick Layers (≥0.3mm): Require longer cooling times or lower print speeds.

Advanced Cooling Techniques

Auxiliary Cooling Systems

• Purpose: High-speed printers (e.g., Bambu Lab X1, Voron Trident) use secondary fans to enhance airflow for rapid cooling.

• Implementation:

  • Dual-Sided Fans: Ensure even cooling for complex geometries.

  • Nozzle-Specific Ducts: Direct airflow precisely to overhangs or bridges.

Dynamic Cooling Adjustments

• Overhangs/Bridges: Automatically increase fan speed in slicers (e.g., PrusaSlicer, Cura) for targeted cooling.

• Material-Specific Profiles: Save custom cooling settings for filaments with unique requirements (e.g., PETG at 50–80% fan speed).

Geometry-Driven Cooling

• Small Features: Prioritize cooling for towers, spikes, or fine details to prevent melting.

• Large Flat Surfaces: Use monotonic ordering to align layer lines and improve surface consistency.

Cooling and Overhang Optimization

Critical Parameters for Overhangs

1. Fan Speed: Maximize airflow (100%) to solidify material before sagging.

2. Print Speed: Reduce to 5–20mm/s for steep overhangs (≥45°).

3. Temperature: Lower nozzle temperature by 5–10°C to reduce filament viscosity.

4. Layer Height: Use ≤0.2mm layers to minimize overhang angles.

Slicer-Specific Strategies

• Cura: Enable "Bridge Settings" for adaptive cooling and speed adjustments.

• PrusaSlicer: Adjust "Overhangs Speed" and "Bridge Fan Speed" in filament settings.

Troubleshooting Cooling Issues

Warping/Delamination

• Causes: Excessive cooling on ABS/ASA; uneven airflow.

• Solutions:

  • Disable cooling for initial layers.

  • Use enclosures and minimize chamber drafts.

Poor Overhang Quality

• Causes: Insufficient cooling, high print speed, or incorrect nozzle temperature.

• Solutions:

  • Increase fan speed and reduce print temperature.

  • Reorient the model to face overhangs toward cooling fans.

Nozzle Temperature Fluctuations

• Causes: Cooling fans blowing directly on the heater block.

• Solutions:

  • Install a silicone sock on the heater block.

  • Adjust fan duct orientation to target extruded material, not the nozzle.

Build plate temperature is critical for ensuring proper adhesion, minimizing warping, and achieving consistent print quality. A heated bed softens the first layer of filament, allowing it to bond securely to the surface. However, incorrect temperatures can lead to warping, poor adhesion, or difficulty removing finished prints.

Material-Specific Recommendations

PLA

• General Range: 40–65°C

  • Lower Range (40–50°C): Ideal for standard PLA to prevent excessive softening.

  • Higher Range (60–65°C): Used for large prints or cooler environments to enhance adhesion.

• Brand Variations:

  • Polymaker PLA: 50 - 60°C

  • MatterHackers PLA: 40±15°C

  • Ultimaker PLA: 60°C